Question 1

Which statement is TRUE about belief in superstition?
A) Belief in superstition is not found in scientifically educated people.
B) Superstitions are irrational beliefs and so have no benefit to people.
C) Superstitions are found in many people who endorse scientific ideas.
D) Superstitions should always be promoted because they reduce stress.

Accepted Answer

Studies have shown that belief in superstition is not limited to uneducated or uninformed individuals, but is present in people across all levels of education and background. Therefore, option A is incorrect. Some people might consider superstitions to be irrational, but many people find comfort in them and feel that they serve a practical purpose. For instance, athletes who have rituals before major competitions often believe that these rituals help them to perform better. Therefore, option B is also incorrect. Option D is clearly incorrect because promoting superstitions without any scientific evidence to support them would be unethical for professionals like us. Hence, option C is the only correct answer.

Question 2

Unlike the claims made in modern science, the claims made about the forces operating in traditional superstitions and magical thinking are_____ and _____.
A) pseudoscientific; not replicable
B) illusions; hallucinations
C) psychological misconceptions; false
D) paranormal; supernatural

Accepted Answer

D

Question 3

Superstitions are:
A) essentially pseudoscientific beliefs.
B) irrational and always should be resisted because they do not help people.
C) heuristics that people use to explain difficult everyday situations.
D) often attributed to the beliefs of other people's religion.

Accepted Answer

D

Question 4

The example of the Martin Luther, the sixteenth-century founder of Protestantism who criticized the Catholic Church and papacy, illustrates how people:
A) have mostly replaced superstitious belief with a scientific approach to nature.
B) like Luther rejected superstitious beliefs such as witchcraft.
C) who adhere to one belief system often say people who adhere to another belief system are superstitious.
D) in the modern era have largely rejected the superstitions of earlier times, such as those in Luther's time.

Accepted Answer

The example of Martin Luther shows how people who adhere to one belief system often criticize and label people from another belief system as superstitious, even though their own beliefs may include their own superstitions. This suggests that beliefs and practices considered superstitious by some may be considered legitimate and important by others, and that the concept of superstition is subjective and culturally specific.

Question 5

Which occupation is more likely to include a higher proportion of people who engage in a superstitious ritual?
A) Jet fighter pilots
B) Grocery store clerks
C) Office workers
D) Carpenters

Accepted Answer

Jet fighter pilots often engage in superstitious rituals to cope with the high levels of risk and uncertainty in their profession.

Question 6

The text describes psychologist B. F. Skinner's study of how pigeons began bobbing their heads and twirling around in the "Skinner box" before they received a food reward. This study led Skinner to explain the acquisition of superstitions in terms of:
A) "after this, therefore because of this" reasoning.
B) motivational theory and reward.
C) operant conditioning and learning theory.
D) classically conditioned responses that reduced stress.

Accepted Answer

Skinner's study and explanation of the acquisition of superstitions is based on operant conditioning and learning theory. Skinner believed that the pigeons' superstitious behaviors were the result of accidental reinforcement, where they associated specific actions or behaviors with receiving a food reward. This theory is based on operant conditioning, which involves linking a certain behavior with a consequence, either positive or negative, to influence future behavior.

Question 7

What do superstitions and psychological misconceptions have in common?
A) Both are kinds of pseudoscience.
B) Both are often associated with commonsense belief and intuition.
C) Both are plausible and based on what we know from science.
D) They both claim to have a scientific basis by those who believe in them.

Accepted Answer

Both superstitions and psychological misconceptions are often rooted in commonsense beliefs and intuition rather than scientific evidence.

Question 8

According to the text, B. F. Skinner's finding that pigeons could acquire superstitious behaviors through operant conditioning has been demonstrated:
A) only with pigeons.
B) with pigeons and children.
C) with pigeons, children, and college students.
D) with pigeons, children, and the elderly.

Accepted Answer

Skinner's findings on superstitious behaviors through operant conditioning have been demonstrated across various groups, including pigeons, children, and college students, showcasing the broad applicability of his theories beyond just one species or age group.

Question 9

Jordan had a dream that later seemed to come true. Jordan concluded that the dream accurately predicted the later event, and he wondered if this was some kind of psychic ability that had been manifested. The MOST plausible alternative explanation for this situation is that Jordan:
A) underestimated the rate of coincidental events.
B) showed the gambler's fallacy.
C) exhibited the conjunction fallacy.
D) inappropriately reasoned from representativeness.

Accepted Answer

This is because the most plausible explanation for this situation is that Jordan underestimated the rate of coincidental events. Just because a dream seems to come true does not necessarily mean that it accurately predicted a later event; it could just be a coincidence. Additionally, there is no scientific evidence to support the existence of psychic abilities.

Question 10

The BEST explanation of how the Hall-of-Fame baseball player Wade Boggs acquired his belief that he should eat chicken as part of his pre-game ritual is that he:
A) began to perceive that when he ate chicken, he tended to get hits, forming an illusory correlation.
B) observed other players engaging in similar rituals and imitated their behaviors through social learning theory.
C) tried many different strategies to improve his hitting and settled on eating chicken before each game.
D) grew up in a family that believed in many superstitions and observed many superstitious rituals.

Accepted Answer

This explanation suggests that Boggs formed an illusory correlation between eating chicken and getting hits, meaning that he believed there was a causal relationship between the two even though it may not have been true.

Question 11

The psychological misconception that people repress memories of traumatic events is used in the text to:
A) demonstrate how a superstition could at the same time be a psychological misconception.
B) show that some superstitious beliefs are also pseudoscientific beliefs.
C) illustrate how superstitious beliefs differ from psychological misconceptions because superstitious beliefs do not try to explain behavior and mental processes.
D) explain how this superstitious belief began as a psychological misconception and became a superstition.

Accepted Answer

The answer of The psychological misconception that people repress memories...

Question 12

Paulo had a dream that his father would have a car accident. About a month later, his father was in an automobile accident. Recalling his dream, Paulo wondered if he had precognition and his dream had warned him of the future event. The MOST plausible explanation for Paulo's experience is that he:
A) did have precognition because the two events were most likely linked.
B) underestimated the probability of coincidental events occurring.
C) experienced a real connection between a mental prediction and a physical event.
D) connected the two events as an example of the conjunction fallacy.

Accepted Answer

The most plausible explanation for Paulo's experience is that he simply underestimated the probability of coincidental events occurring. People often have dreams or thoughts about future events that don't come true, but when they have one that does seem to come true, they may believe it was a sign. In reality, it is much more likely to be a coincidence. This is not to say that precognition is impossible, but it is not supported by scientific evidence.

Question 13

In a park, Maci saw one pigeon that would turn in a circle one way and then turn in a circle the opposite way before it approached any person who was about to feed it. She wondered why it engaged in this pattern of behavior. Based on the studies by B. F. Skinner, which explanation BEST accounts for the pigeon's behavior?
A) The pigeon was showing post hoc ("after this, therefore because of this") reasoning.
B) The sight of food in Maci's hand motivated the pigeon.
C) The pigeon learned the superstitious behavior through operant conditioning.
D) A park visitor shaped and reinforced the pigeon's behavior.

Accepted Answer

According to B.F. Skinner's studies, the pigeon's behavior could be explained through operant conditioning. The pigeon learned that when it engaged in a certain behavior (turning in a circle both ways), it received food, even though there is no actual causal relationship between the behavior and the food. This type of behavior is known as superstitious behavior.

Question 14

The superstition that witches can cause storms and diseases by casting spells is a:
A) pseudoscientific belief.
B) paranormal belief.
C) psychological misconception.
D) kind of thinking error.

Accepted Answer

The superstition that witches can cause storms and diseases by casting spells is considered a paranormal belief because it involves phenomena that are beyond the scope of normal scientific understanding.

Question 15

Which statement about the relationship between science and superstition is FALSE?
A) In the 1600s, scientific explanations were increasingly offered to explain supernatural phenomena.
B) In the 1800s, superstitious ideas became the subject of scientific investigation.
C) In recent years, scientists have been able to show that many superstitions are implausible.
D) In recent years, people have rejected all superstitions after accepting scientific ideas.

Accepted Answer

Option D is false; it is incorrect to state that people have rejected all superstitions after accepting scientific ideas. Many people continue to hold on to their superstitious beliefs despite scientific evidence to the contrary.

Question 16

Research suggests that engaging in superstitions rituals might help athletes by:
A) helping them manage the stress associated with uncertain outcomes when the stakes are high.
B) allowing them to blame any poor performance on superstitious practices that did not actually help them.
C) helping them believe that they have better skill or ability than any of their competitors.
D) helping them try new training activities that they might otherwise be afraid to attempt.

Accepted Answer

Engaging in superstitions rituals can help athletes manage their stress levels and anxiety associated with performing under pressure. This can help them perform better and focus on their task at hand. It does not necessarily give them better skills or abilities than their competitors, nor does it help them blame poor performance on superstitious practices. It is also unlikely to encourage them to try new training activities.

Question 17

The BEST explanation of why the Hall-of-Fame baseball player Wade Boggs engaged in so many superstitious behaviors before and during a game is that he:
A) was a very religious person and so was more prone to hold superstitious beliefs and engage in superstitious rituals.
B) had a tendency to be obsessive-compulsive and, therefore, his psychological condition made him prone to superstitious rituals.
C) followed superstitious rituals that may have helped him make his time at bat seem less risky and more predictable.
D) grew up in a family that believed in many superstitions, and so from a young age he learned to be superstitious.

Accepted Answer

Boggs likely engaged in superstitious behaviors as a way to feel more in control and reduce the perceived risk of failure during his time at bat. These rituals may have given him a sense of predictability and control in an otherwise unpredictable game. There is little evidence to suggest that his superstitions were rooted in religious beliefs, psychological conditions, or family upbringing.

Question 18

The psychological misconception that some people are left-brained and some people are right-brained is used in the text to:
A) demonstrate how a superstition could at the same time be a psychological misconception.
B) distinguish between superstitious beliefs and incorrect ideas derived from science.
C) illustrate how superstitious beliefs differ from psychological misconceptions because superstitious beliefs do not try to explain behavior and mental processes.
D) explain how this superstitious belief began as a psychological misconception and became a superstition.

Accepted Answer

The misconception about people being left-brained or right-brained is used to highlight the difference between superstitious beliefs and incorrect scientific ideas, showing how some misconceptions can originate from misinterpretations or oversimplifications of scientific findings rather than from traditional superstitions.

Question 19

Scientific-minded people often object that individuals who believe in witchcraft and the supernatural are superstitious. Which reason BEST supports this objection as either valid or not valid?
A) It is not valid because scientific-minded people are using an approach that cannot substantiate its claims.
B) The objection of scientific-minded people is not valid because scientists are known to be biased in their opinions, too.
C) It is valid because the objection of scientific-minded people is based on high-quality research demonstrating that superstitious beliefs are likely wrong.
D) Scientific-minded people hold beliefs that are more modern, while people who endorse superstitions are maintaining very old ideas.

Accepted Answer

The reason is valid because scientific research has consistently shown that the supernatural and witchcraft have no scientific evidence to support them. Belief in these things relies on superstition and anecdotal evidence, which is not a reliable method for determining truth. Scientific-minded people use a reliable and evidence-based approach to understanding the world around us.

Question 20

How do superstitions differ from pseudosciences?
A) People who believe in superstitions do not have mistaken ideas about probability.
B) Superstitions are not associated with scientifically implausible claims.
C) People do not claim that a superstition has a scientific basis.
D) Superstitions are what uneducated people believe.

Accepted Answer

Superstitions are beliefs or actions that are not supported by evidence or reason, but people do not claim that they have a scientific basis. Pseudosciences, on the other hand, are beliefs or practices that claim to be based on scientific principles but are not supported by sound scientific evidence or methodology. Therefore, the main difference between superstitions and pseudosciences is that the latter makes false scientific claims while the former does not.

Quiz 12: Superstition, Magic, Science, and Critical Thinking

Which statement is TRUE about belief in superstition?

Unlike the claims made in modern science, the claims made about the forces operating in traditional superstitions and magical thinking are_ and _.

Superstitions are:

The example of the Martin Luther, the sixteenth-century founder of Protestantism who criticized the Catholic Church and papacy, illustrates how people:

Which occupation is more likely to include a higher proportion of people who engage in a superstitious ritual?

The text describes psychologist B. F. Skinner's study of how pigeons began bobbing their heads and twirling around in the "Skinner box" before they received a food reward. This study led Skinner to explain the acquisition of superstitions in terms of:

What do superstitions and psychological misconceptions have in common?

According to the text, B. F. Skinner's finding that pigeons could acquire superstitious behaviors through operant conditioning has been demonstrated:

Jordan had a dream that later seemed to come true. Jordan concluded that the dream accurately predicted the later event, and he wondered if this was some kind of psychic ability that had been manifested. The MOST plausible alternative explanation for this situation is that Jordan:

The BEST explanation of how the Hall-of-Fame baseball player Wade Boggs acquired his belief that he should eat chicken as part of his pre-game ritual is that he:

The psychological misconception that people repress memories of traumatic events is used in the text to:

Paulo had a dream that his father would have a car accident. About a month later, his father was in an automobile accident. Recalling his dream, Paulo wondered if he had precognition and his dream had warned him of the future event. The MOST plausible explanation for Paulo's experience is that he:

The superstition that witches can cause storms and diseases by casting spells is a:

Which statement about the relationship between science and superstition is FALSE?

Research suggests that engaging in superstitions rituals might help athletes by:

The BEST explanation of why the Hall-of-Fame baseball player Wade Boggs engaged in so many superstitious behaviors before and during a game is that he:

The psychological misconception that some people are left-brained and some people are right-brained is used in the text to:

Scientific-minded people often object that individuals who believe in witchcraft and the supernatural are superstitious. Which reason BEST supports this objection as either valid or not valid?

How do superstitions differ from pseudosciences?