Question 1

Discuss the concepts of the zone of proximal development as it relates to cognitive development.

Accepted Answer

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is a concept developed by psychologist Lev Vygotsky that refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance and support. This concept is closely related to cognitive development as it emphasizes the importance of social interaction and scaffolding in the learning process.

In the context of cognitive development, the ZPD suggests that children are capable of learning and understanding more when they are guided by a more knowledgeable other, such as a teacher or a peer. This means that the ZPD is not a fixed or static concept, but rather a dynamic and flexible one that can change as the learner gains new skills and knowledge.

The ZPD also highlights the role of scaffolding, which involves providing just enough support to help the learner accomplish a task or solve a problem. This support can take many forms, such as asking leading questions, providing examples, or breaking down complex tasks into smaller, more manageable steps. By providing this scaffolding, the learner is able to bridge the gap between their current abilities and their potential abilities, ultimately leading to cognitive growth and development.

Overall, the concept of the zone of proximal development is integral to understanding cognitive development as it emphasizes the importance of social interaction, guidance, and support in the learning process. By recognizing and leveraging the ZPD, educators and caregivers can effectively facilitate the cognitive growth of learners and help them reach their full potential.

Question 2

What is meant by the core-knowledge approach to infant cognition?

Accepted Answer

The core-knowledge approach to infant cognition is a theoretical perspective that suggests infants are born with several innate knowledge systems or "core domains" of thought that enable them to make sense of the world around them. This approach posits that these core domains are prewired in the human brain and are specialized for processing certain types of information. These domains develop early in life and are considered fundamental to human cognition.

According to this approach, these core knowledge domains typically include:

1. **Object Knowledge**: Understanding that objects are solid, persist over time even when they are not visible, and follow certain principles of physics (continuity and cohesion).

2. **Number Sense**: An early ability to understand quantity and perform simple arithmetic operations, which is evident in infants' ability to distinguish between different numbers of items.

3. **Agent Knowledge**: Recognizing that other beings have intentions and goals, which is crucial for understanding and predicting others' behaviors.

4. **Spatial Knowledge**: Having an awareness of space, distance, and the relationship between objects in the environment.

5. **Language**: Although not always included as a core domain, some researchers argue that the ability to learn language is also a core knowledge system.

The core-knowledge approach contrasts with the "tabula rasa" or blank slate view, which suggests that infants are born without any knowledge and that all learning comes from experience. It also differs from the constructivist approach, which posits that infants build all cognitive skills from a few general learning mechanisms.

Proponents of the core-knowledge approach, such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renée Baillargeon, have conducted various experiments to demonstrate that even very young infants have more sophisticated cognitive abilities than previously thought. For example, research has shown that infants can perform simple numerical tasks, such as discriminating between groups with different numbers of objects, suggesting an innate number sense.

The core-knowledge approach has significant implications for our understanding of cognitive development, suggesting that certain aspects of human cognition are universal and may be less influenced by cultural differences than other aspects. It also has implications for educational practices, as it implies that teaching methods could be tailored to align with these innate knowledge systems to optimize learning.

Question 3

Discuss the basic principles and assumptions of Piaget's theory.

Accepted Answer

Piaget's theory of cognitive development is based on several basic principles and assumptions.

First, Piaget believed that children actively construct their understanding of the world through their experiences and interactions with their environment. This means that children are not passive recipients of knowledge, but rather active participants in their own learning process.

Second, Piaget proposed that children progress through a series of distinct stages of cognitive development, each characterized by different ways of thinking and understanding the world. These stages include the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage (11 years and older).

Third, Piaget argued that children's cognitive development is driven by a process of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves incorporating new information into existing cognitive structures, while accommodation involves modifying existing cognitive structures to fit new information. This process of adaptation allows children to continually refine and expand their understanding of the world.

Finally, Piaget's theory assumes that cognitive development is universal, meaning that the same basic sequence of stages occurs in all children, regardless of their cultural or environmental differences. However, the rate at which children progress through these stages may vary depending on individual differences and environmental factors.

Overall, Piaget's theory emphasizes the active role of children in their own cognitive development, the importance of distinct stages of development, the process of assimilation and accommodation, and the universality of cognitive development. These principles and assumptions continue to influence our understanding of child development and education today.

Question 4

What is infantile amnesia and what are some of the explanations for it?

Accepted Answer

The answer of What is infantile amnesia and what are...

Question 5

What is prospective memory and how does it change over childhood?

Accepted Answer

The answer of What is prospective memory and how does...

Question 6

To what extent are individual differences in intelligence stable over infancy and childhood?

Accepted Answer

The answer of To what extent are individual differences in...

Question 7

Makers of IQ tests re-standardize their tests from time to time, in part because the average score in the population changes (that is, the average IQ no longer equals 100). If IQ tests had not been changed over the past 60 years, the average IQ score of current Americans would be

Accepted Answer

IQ tests have been re-standardized over the past 60 years, in part due to the Flynn effect, which shows an increase in average IQ scores over time. This suggests that if IQ tests had not been changed over the past 60 years, the average IQ score of current Americans would be higher than it was 60 years ago.

Question 8

Sarah and Ryan both watch their neighbor digging holes in the garden with a trowel and planting flowers. Both children understand that it is their neighbor's goal to plant flowers, but when they begin to plant flowers in their own garden, Sarah uses a trowel to dig holes, just like her neighbor, while Ryan chooses to dig holes with his hands. Sarah is engaging in the form of social learning known as ___________, while Ryan is engaging in _____________.

Accepted Answer

Sarah is engaging in imitation because she is copying the specific actions (using a trowel) she observed her neighbor perform. Ryan is engaging in emulation because he is adopting the goal (planting flowers) but using a different method (his hands) to achieve it.

Question 9

Cross-age correlations are used to assess the stability of IQ. Research has shown that IQ is generally

Accepted Answer

Research shows that IQ is generally highly stable, with cross-age correlations with adult IQ around .70-.80 by 8 or 9 years of age.

Question 10

DeLoache defined representational insight as

Accepted Answer

The answer of DeLoache defined representational insight as
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Question 11

DeLoache and her colleagues showed children either photographs or miniature models of a room. Children were then shown, using either the photograph or the model, where a toy was hidden in the "real" room. Children then entered the real room and were asked to find the toy. DeLoache reported that the youngest children (2 year olds) were

Accepted Answer

DeLoache's research found that younger children were more successful with photographs than with models because the photographs, being less interesting as objects themselves, served as more effective representational tools. This suggests that the simplicity and directness of photographs helped the children understand the representational connection between the image and the real-world location of the toy.

Question 12

According to Piaget, accommodation refers to

Accepted Answer

Piaget defined accommodation as the process of changing or modifying existing cognitive structures (schemas) in order to incorporate new information. This is different from assimilation, which is the process of fitting new information into existing schemas without changing those schemas.

Question 13

According to Piaget, which of the following is not a form of symbolic functioning?

Accepted Answer

Mutual imitation involves copying the actions of others without the use of symbols. Language, mental imagery, and symbolic play all involve the use of symbols in some way.

Question 14

Baron-Cohen uses the term mindblindness to refer to

Accepted Answer

Baron-Cohen coined the term mindblindness to describe the deficit in the ability to "read others' minds" that is shown by people with autism.

Question 15

Tomasello and his colleagues, among others, have emphasized the importance of viewing others as intentional agents. This is first seen in infancy in the later part of the first year as reflected by

Accepted Answer

Shared attention, also known as joint attention, is the ability to coordinate attention with another person towards a common object or event. This is an early sign of viewing others as intentional agents, as it demonstrates an understanding that others also have their own focus of attention and can direct it towards specific things. Representational insight, deferred imitation, and false-belief reasoning all develop later and build upon this foundation of shared attention.

Question 16

In the Dimensional Change Card Sorting Task, children sort pictures according to one dimension (e.g., by color, "All the blue cards go here"), and then the dimensions change (e.g., sorting by shape, "Now all the flowers go here."). Children 3 years of age and younger have a difficult time performing this task when the dimensions change. This task assesses

Accepted Answer

The Dimensional Change Card Sorting Task assesses cognitive flexibility, or the ability to switch between different tasks or mental sets. The task requires children to switch from sorting pictures by one dimension to sorting them by another dimension, which can be challenging for young children who have not yet developed this skill. The task does not specifically assess working memory, ADHD, or metacognition.

Question 17

With respect to cognitive development, plasticity refers to

Accepted Answer

Plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt in response to new experiences and challenges, including the ability to recover from previously harmful circumstances. This is a critical aspect of cognitive development as it allows individuals to continue to learn and grow throughout their lifespan. While problem-solving is important for cognitive development, it is not specifically related to plasticity. The generation of new brain cells after birth is called neurogenesis, and while it is related to brain plasticity, it is not the same thing. Likewise, the artificiality of learning rote memory tasks is not directly related to plasticity.

Question 18

Spelke has argued that infants are born with a small set of distinct systems of knowledge that have been shaped by natural selection over evolution on which new and flexible skills and knowledge systems (such as reading and arithmetic) are later built. She refers to this as

Accepted Answer

Spelke's theory proposes that infants have innate and domain-specific knowledge systems (such as object permanence or numerical concepts) that serve as a foundation for later learning and development. She refers to these systems as "core knowledge." The other answer options are not directly related to Spelke's theory.

Question 19

Piaget's concept of object permanence refers to the

Accepted Answer

Piaget's concept of object permanence refers to the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. It is the knowledge that objects exist independently of one's perceptions and actions on them.

Question 20

At about 3 years of age, symbolic play increases substantially in complexity, with children engaging with other children in role-playing, called

Accepted Answer

The term for children engaging with other children in role-playing is sociodramatic play. This type of play involves using imagination and creativity to act out different scenarios and roles, and it becomes more complex around 3 years of age.

Quiz 1: The Development of Cognitive Abilities