Question 1

Describe the two tendencies that, according to gender schema theory, help to perpetuate gender stereotypes that have little or no basis in reality. Then, think of a gender stereotype that appears to have little or no basis in reality and explain how these two tendencies may play a role in its perpetuation.

Accepted Answer

According to gender schema theory, there are two tendencies that help to perpetuate gender stereotypes that have little or no basis in reality. The first tendency is the process of categorization, where individuals automatically classify people and objects into gender categories based on societal norms and expectations. This leads to the reinforcement of gender stereotypes as individuals are more likely to notice and remember information that is consistent with these stereotypes.

The second tendency is the process of in-group favoritism, where individuals have a preference for their own gender group and are more likely to remember and internalize information that portrays their own gender in a positive light. This can lead to the exaggeration of gender differences and the perpetuation of stereotypes that have little or no basis in reality.

An example of a gender stereotype that appears to have little or no basis in reality is the belief that women are not as capable as men in leadership positions. This stereotype is not supported by evidence, as numerous studies have shown that women are just as effective as men in leadership roles. However, the tendency of categorization may lead individuals to notice and remember instances where women are perceived as less competent, while the tendency of in-group favoritism may lead individuals to internalize and perpetuate this stereotype in order to maintain a positive view of their own gender group.

In conclusion, the tendencies of categorization and in-group favoritism play a significant role in perpetuating gender stereotypes that have little or no basis in reality. These tendencies can lead to the exaggeration of gender differences and the reinforcement of stereotypes that are not supported by evidence.

Question 2

Identify and explain three criticisms of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory of gender-role development. Using the information in the text about gender development, make an argument for the truth or falsity of these criticisms. Be specific, and provide supportive examples.

Accepted Answer

One criticism of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory of gender-role development is that it focuses too much on the individual and does not take into account the influence of social and cultural factors. According to Kohlberg, children develop their gender roles through their own cognitive processes, such as gender identity and gender stability. However, this overlooks the impact of societal norms, media, and family influences on a child's understanding of gender roles.

For example, a study by Bussey and Bandura (1999) found that children's gender-role development is heavily influenced by the behavior and attitudes of their parents, peers, and the media. This suggests that Kohlberg's theory may not fully capture the complexity of gender development, as it does not consider the external influences that shape a child's understanding of gender roles.

Another criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that it does not account for the experiences of individuals who do not fit into traditional gender categories. Kohlberg's theory assumes a binary understanding of gender, where individuals are either male or female, and develop gender roles based on their biological sex. This overlooks the experiences of transgender and non-binary individuals, who may not fit into these traditional categories and may have different experiences of gender development.

For example, research by Lev (2004) found that transgender individuals often have unique experiences of gender development, as they may not identify with the gender roles associated with their biological sex. This suggests that Kohlberg's theory may not fully capture the diversity of gender experiences and development.

Lastly, Kohlberg's theory has been criticized for its lack of consideration of the intersectionality of gender with other social identities, such as race, class, and sexual orientation. Gender development is not experienced in isolation, and individuals may have different experiences of gender roles based on their intersecting social identities. Kohlberg's theory does not account for these intersecting identities and how they may influence a child's understanding of gender roles.

For example, research by Crenshaw (1989) introduced the concept of intersectionality, which highlights how different social identities intersect and influence an individual's experiences. This suggests that Kohlberg's theory may not fully capture the complexity of gender development, as it does not consider how intersecting social identities may shape a child's understanding of gender roles.

In conclusion, while Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory of gender-role development has provided valuable insights into how children develop their understanding of gender roles, it has been criticized for overlooking the influence of social and cultural factors, not accounting for individuals who do not fit into traditional gender categories, and not considering the intersectionality of gender with other social identities. These criticisms suggest that Kohlberg's theory may not fully capture the complexity of gender development and may need to be expanded to account for these factors.

Question 3

Describe the two mechanisms through which social identity theory proposes that children's gender is socialized. For each mechanism, provide two examples of ways girls and boys may behave differently as a result.

Accepted Answer

Social identity theory proposes that children's gender is socialized through two mechanisms: social categorization and social comparison.

1. Social categorization: This mechanism involves children learning to categorize themselves and others into gender groups based on societal norms and expectations. As a result, girls and boys may behave differently in the following ways:
   - Girls may be more likely to engage in nurturing and caregiving behaviors, such as playing with dolls and pretending to be mothers, as they are socialized to see themselves as future caregivers and homemakers.
   - Boys may be more likely to engage in rough and physical play, such as playing with toy trucks and pretending to be superheroes, as they are socialized to see themselves as future protectors and providers.

2. Social comparison: This mechanism involves children comparing themselves to others within their gender group and adjusting their behavior to fit in with societal expectations. As a result, girls and boys may behave differently in the following ways:
   - Girls may be more likely to conform to traditional gender roles and expectations, such as being polite and nurturing, in order to fit in with their female peers and receive positive reinforcement from adults.
   - Boys may be more likely to engage in competitive and dominant behaviors, such as trying to assert their authority and leadership within their male peer group, in order to gain social status and approval from their peers.

Question 4

Using the model of self-socialization proposed by gender schema theory, outline how children choose among the array of objects and activities available to them, and how those choices influence their knowledge. Give a specific example of one such choice and explain how the gender schema theory would explain that choice.

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Question 5

A friend says that her son and daughter are entirely different from each other. Her son likes to play in the dirt, play with trucks, and build elaborate towers out of blocks. Her daughter likes to play dress up, pretend she is feeding her dolls, and loves ballet. The friend insists that she has always treated her two children exactly the same. Would you agree or disagree with your friend's analysis? Describe three things you would tell your friend, and identify what theoretical perspective would be most informative in this conversation.

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Question 6

Describe the stages of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory of gender-role development. What questions could one ask a child to determine at what stage his or her current level of knowledge is? What types of mistakes do children make in the first two stages, before they have achieved the final stage?

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Question 7

Has what you have learned in this chapter about parents' role in gender socialization influenced your thoughts on how you might want to behave toward your own children? If so, how? If not, why not?

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Question 8

Describe the development of children's understanding of gender discrimination. What factors are involved in this understanding? Why might children's beliefs about gender discrimination not align with their behaviour?

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Question 9

Describe the process by which cognitive and motivational influences might influence gender differences in aggression. Provide at least two examples.

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Question 10

Describe the evolutionary psychological perspective on gender differences. Provide an example of a gender difference that is addressed by this perspective and how it is explained. What do you think about the evolutionary psychological perspective? Describe one aspect of it with which you agree and one aspect with which you disagree. Explain your perspective on these in detail.

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Question 11

Describe the processes of self-socialization and parent socialization of gender-appropriate behaviour. Give three examples of each.

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Question 12

Describe two similarities and two differences between the process of gender development as proposed by gender schema theory and as proposed by social identity theory.

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Question 13

Why do you think parents are more flexible with their daughters' gender roles than with those of their sons? Provide supportive examples.

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Question 14

Describe one gender difference that you have noticed among your friends. Identify three theoretical perspectives that you think could explain this gender difference, and describe what these perspectives would have to say about it.

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Question 15

Design an intervention aimed at reducing gender stereotypes. What would that intervention look like, what would its goal(s) be, and how would one measure success? Explain what theory or perspective most informs the intervention design and how that perspective informs the design.

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Question 16

Describe the extent to which members of each gender are gender typed and the extent to which society allows individuals of the two genders to stray from their gender type. Specifically, are males and females allowed to diverge from their gender type to the same extent? Provide supportive evidence. Why does society have these degrees of allowance for the two genders?

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Question 17

Of the four cognitive theories of gender development discussed in the text, which one do you think explains the widest variety of gender differences? Describe the processes or components proposed by the theory that you think contribute to its superiority. Illustrate your point using a gender difference that is explained well by this theory, but that is not explained well by the other theories.

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Question 18

Give two examples of ways that girls and boys may elicit differential treatment from their parents. Can this entirely explain why parents differentially treat their sons and daughters? Why or why not? Be specific.

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Question 19

How are nature, nurture, and the interaction between nature and nurture involved in the differences between the intelligence of males and females? Be sure to provide specific examples of each influence that is involved.

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Question 20

Describe your position on parental socialization of gender differences. First, what role do you believe parents play in the development of gender differences? Second, do you believe parents should try to minimize their gender socialization, or do you believe that this socialization is necessary for children to succeed as members of society? Be sure to give a thorough explanation of your position, and provide supportive examples.

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Quiz 15: Section 1: Gender Development