Tolman's views on learning differed from those of Skinner in that Tolman believed:

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Tolman believed that organisms develop cognitive maps or mental representations of the environment, and that they use these maps to develop means-ends expectancies. These expectancies, in turn, guide behaviour. This cognitive approach to learning is in contrast to Skinner's behaviourist approach, which emphasized the importance of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behaviour. Tolman argued that reinforcement was only effective in shaping behaviour if the organism had formed an association between the stimulus and the response. In other words, reinforcement was dependent on the formation of stimulus-response associations. This view is reflected in Tolman's concept of the "latent learning" that occurs when organisms form cognitive maps of their environment, even in the absence of observable behavioural changes.

Tolman's Views on Learning Differed from Those of Skinner in That