Which of the following is a quasi-experimental design?

Name: Which of the following is a quasi-experimental design?
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Question

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All the options listed (ex post facto, multiple time series, nonequivalent before-after) are types of quasi-experimental designs, which are used when random assignment to groups is not possible. These designs attempt to establish causality by employing methods that approximate the control of an experimental design but lack its full rigor, often due to practical or ethical constraints.

Which of the Following Is a Quasi-Experimental Design