To infer a causal relationship, which of the following types of evidence does a researcher need?
A)Evidence of a strong association between an action and an outcome.
B)Evidence that the action preceded the outcome.
C)Evidence of a high level of internal validity.
D)Evidence that there are no strongly competing explanations for the relationship between an action and an outcome.
E)All of these

Question

Quizplus · Accepted Answer

All of these types of evidence are necessary for inferring a causal relationship between an action and an outcome. Evidence of a strong association between an action and an outcome suggests that there may be a relationship, but it could be explained by other factors. Evidence that the action preceded the outcome helps establish temporal precedence, a necessary condition for causality. Internal validity is important to rule out alternative explanations for the relationship, and evidence of no competing explanations is necessary to strengthen confidence in a causal relationship. Therefore, all of these types of evidence are needed to infer a causal relationship.

To Infer a Causal Relationship, Which of the Following Types