The phenomenon of learned helplessness, discovered by Martin Seligman and Steven Maier, demonstrated that expectations can play a significant role in classical and operant conditioning.

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Martin Seligman and Steven Maier's experiments on learned helplessness showed that the expectation of uncontrollability could lead to a passive and helpless response, which is an example of classical conditioning. This phenomenon highlighted the importance of cognitive factors in learning and behavior.

The Phenomenon of Learned Helplessness, Discovered by Martin Seligman and Steven