Question 1

Which theory of media consumption combines elements of both the magic bullet theory and the uses and gratifications theory?

Accepted Answer

Stuart Hall's encoding/decoding model combines elements of the magic bullet theory, which suggests media messages are received and wholly accepted by the audience, and the uses and gratifications theory, which proposes that audiences actively seek out media to satisfy various needs. Hall's model acknowledges the power of media messages (similar to the magic bullet theory) but also recognizes that audiences interpret messages in different ways based on their individual backgrounds and contexts (aligning with uses and gratifications theory).

Question 2

There are an infinite number of potential meanings for any given text if, as Stanley Fish argues, an individual reader interprets a text and thereby gives it meaning. Why do so many people interpret things in the same ways?

Accepted Answer

People who consume the same texts frequently come from similar backgrounds or have similar social and cultural frameworks. This can create a shared set of assumptions and values that shape their interpretation of a given text in similar ways. Additionally, people may be influenced by the dominant cultural narratives that are conveyed through media and other sources, which can further shape their interpretation of texts. However, it is important to note that this does not mean that all people interpret texts in exactly the same way - there is still room for individual variation and interpretation.

Question 3

Project Censored posts a list of the twenty-five most censored news stories every year. These stories are "censored," though not in the sense that the media are legally prohibited from covering them. They are considered "censored" because most major media outlets have systematically ignored them and, in the process, determined what the public will think about. What theory explains this?

Accepted Answer

The theory of agenda-setting posits that media have the power to determine which issues are deemed important and thus set the agenda for public discourse. In the case of Project Censored's list, the media's systematic ignoring of these stories is a form of agenda-setting, as they are determining what issues the public is aware of and talking about.

Question 4

Polysemy refers to the idea that

Accepted Answer

Polysemy refers to the fact that a single word can have multiple meanings or interpretations depending on its context. It is the opposite of monosemy, which refers to words that have only one meaning. Polysemy is a common feature of language and can contribute to ambiguity and nuance in communication.

Question 5

According to Henry Jenkins, what are audience members doing when they manipulate commercially produced media products, often to tell stories or express ideas very different from the original?

Accepted Answer

According to Henry Jenkins, audience members are engaging in "textual poaching" when they manipulate commercially produced media products, often to tell stories or express ideas very different from the original. This term refers to the ways in which audiences take cultural materials and make them their own, repurposing them for their own needs and desires.

Question 6

Which part of Stuart Hall's theory resembles the magic bullet model?

Accepted Answer

The assumption that specific ideological messages are loaded into cultural products resembles the magic bullet model, which suggests that media messages have a powerful and direct impact on audiences. Stuart Hall's theory differs from the magic bullet model in its emphasis on how individuals actively interpret and negotiate cultural products.

Question 7

Bloomsbury Academic Press hosted a competition called Remix the Remixer in 2008 to celebrate the release of Lawrence Lessig's book. Contest entrants were asked to find a video, interview, or written work of Lessig's, mash it up with another piece of Lessig's work, and create something new such as a video, photo, or text. What is this sort of artistic activity called?

Accepted Answer

This sort of artistic activity is called textual poaching, which involves remixing or reworking existing media content to create something new.

Question 8

A series of polls in 2003 showed that people who primarily got their news from the Fox News Channel were significantly more likely to believe that Iraq had played a part in the 9/11 attacks. Many people saw this as evidence of the way the media shaped public opinion, but some believed that those who already believed this simply gravitated to Fox. This is an example of

Accepted Answer

Reinforcement theory suggests that media can reinforce existing beliefs and attitudes, rather than changing them. In this case, people who already believed that Iraq was involved in 9/11 might have been drawn to Fox News because its coverage reinforced their beliefs.

Question 9

According to the two-step flow model, which of the following would be MOST likely to sway public opinion concerning the ethical treatment of farm animals?

Accepted Answer

The two-step flow model suggests that media effects are mediated by opinion leaders who first consume media content and then pass on their interpretation to others. A famous actress can act as an opinion leader, influencing her followers' views on the ethical treatment of farm animals.

Question 10

What are fans of the original Star Trek series doing when they edit recorded episodes of the TV show to make it appear that Captain Kirk and Mr. Spock are passionate gay lovers?

Accepted Answer

Fans of the original Star Trek series who edit recorded episodes to make it appear that Captain Kirk and Mr. Spock are passionate gay lovers are engaging in textual poaching, which is the practice of taking elements from an existing text and transforming them into something new.

Question 11

In 2014, Pharrell Williams gave permission to fans to create their own "cover" videos using his song "Happy." This resulted in nearly 2,000 different versions of the music video produced by fans in more than 150 different countries. The model of ______ is highlighted by the example of Pharrell Williams's hit song "Happy."

Accepted Answer

The model of textual poaching is highlighted by the example of Pharrell Williams's hit song "Happy." Textual poaching is a process where fans take an original text, such as a song or TV show, and create their own versions or interpretations of it. Williams gave permission to his fans to create their own "cover" videos, resulting in numerous versions of the music video being produced by fans in different countries.

Question 12

The positive response of music critics as well as the negative response from people like bell hooks to Beyoncé's Lemonade is an example of which model?

Accepted Answer

The encoding/decoding model suggests that media messages are encoded with specific meanings by producers and decoded in different ways by audiences. The positive response of some music critics and negative response from bell hooks shows the different ways in which Lemonade is being decoded and interpreted by different audiences.

Question 13

A popular radio talk show host comments that mass shootings are increasing simply because people are consuming increasingly violent television shows and movies and doing so more often. Which theory is this talk show host espousing?

Accepted Answer

The talk show host is espousing the hypodermic needle theory, which suggests that the media has a direct and powerful effect on audiences and can inject them with ideas and behaviors. This theory has been largely debunked in media studies, as research has shown that audiences are more active and critical in their consumption of media. Additionally, there is no clear evidence linking violent media to the increase in mass shootings.

Question 14

Critics might see soap operas as brainwashing their viewers to accept a particular version of gender roles. Some sociologists would insist that the people who produce soap operas actually have to be constantly attentive to the desires of their audience and are, to some extent, responding to the audience. If you believe this, then you probably see soap opera viewers as

Accepted Answer

An active audience is one that is engaged and interactive with the media they consume. This aligns with the idea that the producers of soap operas are responding to the desires of their audience, implying that the viewers are actively participating in the creation of the content they consume. Therefore, an active audience is the best choice.

Question 15

The producers, writers, and actors of Die Hard meant for the audience to cheer for the protagonist, a blue-collar hero who defeats a team of German terrorists single-handedly. If you met someone who instead was rooting for Hans Gruber, the murderous leader of the terrorists, you could say that they were

Accepted Answer

The concept of encoding and decoding media messages comes from Stuart Hall's theory of reception analysis. It suggests that a message is encoded by its creators, then decoded by its audience. Different people may decode the same message in different ways based on their background and personal experiences. So, if someone is rooting for the villain in Die Hard, they are not necessarily being brainwashed by the media or being used as pawns. They may simply be interpreting the movie differently than the creators intended.

Question 16

The English music star Morrissey got his start in the band The Smiths, singing about radical vegetarianism and bisexuality in the 1980s. He was effeminate, bleak, and sarcastic. His fan base has expanded far beyond the disaffected English teenagers who bought his original records. In fact, some of his most devoted fans today are Hispanic millennials in Southern California. How is it possible that British teenagers in the 1980s and Hispanic Californians today can appreciate the same music?

Accepted Answer

Cultural background and personal experiences shape individuals' interpretive strategies, which can differ across different groups of people. Therefore, it is likely that British teenagers in the 1980s and Hispanic Californians today bring different interpretive strategies to the experience of listening to Morrissey's music, which allows them to appreciate it in their own way despite their different cultural backgrounds and historical contexts.

Question 17

Teenage boys sometimes watch football games on Sunday only because they wish to be able to make conversation with their classmates on Monday. Which theory best explains this?

Accepted Answer

The uses and gratifications paradigm suggests that individuals seek out media content that will fulfill their specific needs and desires. In this case, the teenage boys are watching football games to be able to participate in conversations with their peers, thus satisfying their need for social interaction and approval.

Question 18

Polysemy, or the idea that any given text may have multiple meanings, is most closely associated with which theory of media effects?

Accepted Answer

Polysemy refers to the fact that a text can have multiple meanings depending on the interpretation of the audience. This idea is central to interpretive strategies, which suggest that the meaning of a media message is not fixed but is constructed by the audience through their own cultural background and experiences. Agenda-setting theory and two-step flow model do not focus on the idea of multiple meanings within a text, and encoding/decoding model examines how dominant readings of a text are produced rather than considering multiple interpretations.

Question 19

Stanley Fish argues against older understandings of media and literature, which held that a text is unchanging and universal. He argues that each member of an audience can interpret or "create" a work, but he does not claim that each audience member has absolute freedom to interpret in unique ways because

Accepted Answer

Fish argues that each member of an audience is part of a larger interpretive community, meaning that individuals are influenced by the shared cultural norms, beliefs, and values of the group they belong to. Therefore, audience members are not completely free to interpret a work in any way they choose, as they are bound by the interpretive norms of their community.

Question 20

What is a group of like-minded individuals called if its members share a similar sensibility and enjoy cultural products in similar ways?

Accepted Answer

An interpretive community is a group of people who share a similar sensibility and interpret cultural products in similar ways. They may have shared experiences, values, and beliefs that shape their interpretation of media texts. This term is often used in cultural studies and media studies to describe the practices of fans, enthusiasts, and other groups who engage in active interpretation and appropriation of popular culture.

Quiz 13: Leisure and Media