Question 1

What does the term ''All else equal" refer to, in the context of a causal relationship?

Accepted Answer

"All else equal" refers to a situation where all variables except the one being studied are held constant, to isolate the effect of the variable of interest on the outcome. This is a common approach in experiments and theoretical analyses to understand causal relationships.

Question 2

Which factor must be assessed in order to declare an association between two variables as causal?

Accepted Answer

Internal validity must be assessed to ensure that the observed association is not due to other factors, and that the study design and execution accurately reflect a causal relationship.

Question 3

If an association between two variables is determined to be causal, which two criteria could be used to strengthen the validity of that determination?

Accepted Answer

B

Question 4

In a study, it was found that a 1-unit change in a variable X caused a 3.2 unit change in variable Y. What is this phenomenon termed as?

Accepted Answer

This phenomenon is termed as empirical association because it is based on observed data showing how changes in one variable are associated with changes in another variable.

Question 5

What is the name given to the technique of combining results of several studies to arrive at a summary of findings?

Accepted Answer

Meta-analysis is the statistical technique used for combining the findings from independent studies to determine the overall trend or effect.

Question 6

To confirm causality, a researcher analyzes the data to verify that any change in an independent variable occurs prior to a corresponding change in the outcome variable. What is this type of verification called?

Accepted Answer

This type of verification is called "time order," which is essential in establishing causality by ensuring that changes in the independent variable precede changes in the dependent variable.

Question 7

A research study found that what was hypothesized as the dependent variable, had value changes prior to corresponding changes in an associated variable, originally taken as an independent variable. What is the term given to such a finding?

Accepted Answer

Reverse causation refers to a situation where the direction of cause-and-effect is opposite to what has been originally hypothesized, meaning the supposed dependent variable influences the supposed independent variable.

Question 8

A cosmetics company observed that retail sales of a particular product fell in three consecutive years after a 5% price increase in 2016. The company did not study any other factors that could have affected sales, and, decided to reduce prices by 3%, going forward. What is this type of conclusion or deduction termed in research studies?

Accepted Answer

The answer of A cosmetics company observed that retail sales...

Question 9

Which type of study is appropriate for determining the time order between two variables?

Accepted Answer

Longitudinal studies are designed to track the same variables or groups of individuals over a period of time, making them ideal for determining the time order between two variables. This allows researchers to observe changes and establish a sequence of events or behaviors.

Question 10

A study observed a positive association between number of insurance claims and income of the insured. On further analysis, it was found that the age of the insured had a strong positive association with income and helped explain the variation in the number of claims. What term is used to define the association between claims and income?

Accepted Answer

The term "spurious" is used to describe an association between two variables that appears to be causal but is actually explained by the influence of one or more other variables. In this case, the association between the number of insurance claims and income is explained by the age of the insured, making the initial observed association between claims and income spurious.

Question 11

In the example given in question 10, what term is used to refer to the age variable?

Accepted Answer

The term "confounding factor" is used to refer to a variable, like age in the example, that might influence both the dependent and independent variables, potentially leading to a spurious association between them.

Question 12

What is a "mechanism", in the context of causal relationships?

Accepted Answer

A mechanism, in the context of causal relationships, refers to the process or series of steps that explains how or why a cause leads to an effect. It provides the underlying explanation for the observed relationship between variables.

Question 13

What is a dose-response? Choose the best answer

Accepted Answer

A dose-response relationship indicates that as the dose of a predictor (such as a drug or a toxin) increases, the magnitude of the response (such as a therapeutic effect or toxicity) also changes. This concept is fundamental in pharmacology and toxicology, illustrating that the effect on an organism varies with the amount of exposure to a substance.

Question 14

What is an alternative term often used for experimental studies?

Accepted Answer

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are a type of experimental study designed to assess the effectiveness of a new treatment or intervention. They are characterized by the random assignment of participants to either the experimental group receiving the treatment or the control group receiving a placebo or standard treatment, which helps to minimize bias and establish causality.

Question 15

Why is there a control group in clinical trials?

Accepted Answer

The control group in clinical trials is used to assess how the response to the treatment differs from no treatment or a standard treatment, providing a baseline for comparison. This helps in determining the effectiveness of the new treatment being tested.

Question 16

In an experimental study, the 36 participants of the study were arbitrarily placed into two equal groups of 18 participants each. What is this type of placement known as?

Accepted Answer

Random assignment is the process of assigning participants in a research study to different groups in a manner that every participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group. This method is used to ensure that each group is similar at the start of the experiment, which helps in isolating the effects of the independent variable being tested.

Question 17

What is pretest measurement"?

Accepted Answer

Pretest measurement refers to the assessment of the outcome of interest before any intervention is applied, to establish a baseline for comparison.

Question 18

The participants of the study mentioned in question 16 are not informed whether they are being placed in the treatment or in the control group. What term is used to identify this type of study?

Accepted Answer

This type of study is referred to as "single-blinded" because the participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment or are in the control group, but the researchers do know.

Question 19

What does 'placebo effect' mean in the context of experimental studies?

Accepted Answer

The placebo effect refers to a change in a participant's condition attributable to their expectations or beliefs about the treatment rather than the treatment itself. When participants believe they are receiving treatment, even if it's a placebo (an inert substance), they may experience real changes in their health or symptoms. This effect highlights the power of the mind and expectations in influencing health outcomes.

Question 20

What are the primary components of a research experiment? Choose the best answer.

Accepted Answer

Random assignment to treatment and control groups, along with posttest measurement, are key components of a research experiment. This structure allows for the assessment of the effect of the treatment by comparing outcomes between the groups.

Quiz 12: Causality