Question 1

Describe the process of the canonization of the Hebrew Bible. What books were the first to be canonized and when? How did other books come to be added later, and what factors were involved in choosing the books? When was the current canon finally closed?

Accepted Answer

The five books of the Torah were widely accepted by the late fifth century BC.E. The Prophets (Former and Latter) were codified and accepted by the second century BC.E. (with seemingly prophetic books like Daniel not making it into that collection partly for that reason). The Writings were accepted by around the time of the fall of the Second Temple in 70 C.E. The three primary factors involved in choosing the books to be canonized were language (must be Hebrew, though perhaps including some Aramaic portions), age (books written before the fourth century, with Daniel as an exception as it claims to be written prior to that), and wide usage.

Question 2

How did the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls impact our understanding of the text of the Hebrew Bible? Give examples wherever possible.

Accepted Answer

The Dead Sea Scrolls impact our understanding of what was regarded as scriptural by the first century C.E. The seeming authority of a book like Jubilees, the absence of Esther, and the numerous "rewritten Bible" texts help show that what became canonical was still in flux at that point. The Scrolls also include multiple versions of some books, such as Jeremiah. The Scrolls also show that in many instances, the transmission of the texts of the Hebrew Bible has been remarkably reliable, with texts removed by over a millennium remaining quite close.

Question 3

The books of the New Testament were used by a variety of Christian groups, some of which were subsequently labeled as heretical. How did the process of canonization limit possible interpretations of these books and make them acceptable to orthodox Christians?

Accepted Answer

Although "heretical" groups used texts that were eventually placed in the canon (among them are Matthew, John, and Paul's letters), once a group of texts is canonized, those books are no longer read as free-standing texts with their own individual emphases and Christologies/theologies. Rather, when these books are placed into one book, The New Testament, they are intended to be read together and to shed light on one another. The reader of the New Testament, then, is supposed to read, for example, the Gospel of John in light of the Gospel of Matthew. The juxtaposition of texts containing different views bars a reader from moving too far in one doctrinal direction.

Question 4

Some manuscripts of Luke report that when Mary and Joseph found Jesus in the Temple when he was twelve, Mary said, "Your father and I have been searching for you," while others read, "We have been searching for you." Which of these do you think represents the more original passage? Why?

Accepted Answer

The answer of Some manuscripts of Luke report that when...

Question 5

Many scholars do not believe we can ever be certain that we possess the exact words of the New Testament authors. What arguments might they give to substantiate this claim?

Accepted Answer

The answer of Many scholars do not believe we can...

Question 6

All of the books in the Old Testament were accepted as canonical at the same time.

Accepted Answer

The books of the Old Testament were not all accepted as canonical at the same time. The process of canonization took place over several centuries and involved debates among Jewish and Christian scholars. Different groups within Judaism and Christianity also had different canons of scripture, with some including additional books that were not accepted by others.

Question 7

The Kethuvim were largely agreed upon by the second century BC.E

Accepted Answer

The Ketuvim, or Writings, which is the third section of the Hebrew Bible, was not fully agreed upon until well into the first millennium CE, with discussions about its contents continuing into the early centuries CE.

Question 8

Only books entirely or largely written in Hebrew were accepted in the Jewish canon.

Accepted Answer

Only books that were written entirely or largely in Hebrew were accepted into the Jewish canon, which includes the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings. Books that were written in other languages such as Aramaic, Greek, or Latin were not included.

Question 9

Orthodoxy was a primary criterion of the canonization of the Hebrew Bible.

Accepted Answer

The canonization of the Hebrew Bible was influenced by various factors, including tradition, usage in worship, and the text's perceived authority, rather than orthodoxy as a primary criterion.

Question 10

The Dead Sea Scrolls indicate that the Jewish canon was already fixed by the first century C.E.

Accepted Answer

The Dead Sea Scrolls contain a wide variety of texts, including books not found in the later established Jewish canon, suggesting that the canon was not yet fixed by the first century C.E.

Question 11

It is impossible to know how much the text of the Hebrew Bible changed before the first century C.E.

Accepted Answer

There is no way to determine how much the text of the Hebrew Bible changed over time, as there are no extant manuscripts from before the first century C.E. Additionally, the transmission of the text through oral tradition and scribal copying allowed for potential changes and variations.

Question 12

The Dead Sea Scrolls were copied based on the traditions of the Masoretes.

Accepted Answer

The Dead Sea Scrolls were actually copied before the Masoretes, who were a Jewish group that specialized in preserving and transmitting the text of the Hebrew Bible. The Dead Sea Scrolls are believed to have been copied by a Jewish sect known as the Essenes during the Second Temple period.

Question 13

Some books found at Qumran are closer to the text of the Septuagint than to the Masoretic Text.

Accepted Answer

Some of the books found at Qumran, such as the Book of Jeremiah, have been found to be closer in content to the Septuagint than to the Masoretic Text. This has been attributed to the fact that the Qumran community may have followed a different textual tradition than the mainstream Jewish community.

Question 14

Orthodoxy was a primary criterion for the canonization of the New Testament

Accepted Answer

Orthodoxy, or adherence to accepted beliefs and doctrines, was a crucial factor in determining which texts were included in the New Testament canon. Works that deviated too far from orthodox Christian beliefs or practices were not included in the canon.

Question 15

The earliest canon list of all twenty-seven New Testament books is from the late fourth century C.E.

Accepted Answer

The earliest canon list of all twenty-seven New Testament books is from the late fourth century C.E., commonly known as the "Muratorian Fragment" or "Canon Muratori."

Question 16

Marcion seems to have collected the first Christian canon.

Accepted Answer

Marcion of Sinope, active in the 2nd century, is indeed credited with compiling the first collection of Christian texts, which he believed to be the authentic scriptures, thereby creating what could be considered the first Christian canon. This collection notably excluded the Old Testament and included only a version of Luke's Gospel and ten Pauline epistles, reflecting his theological views.

Question 17

Some New Testament manuscripts date back to the second century C.E.

Accepted Answer

There are several New Testament manuscripts that date back to the second century C.E., including fragments of the Gospel of John and the letters of Paul.

Question 18

We have the original copy of the Gospel of Mark but of no other New Testament book.

Accepted Answer

While we do not have any of the original manuscripts of the New Testament books, we do have early copies of all of them.

Question 19

We can know the original words of the Bible for certain.

Accepted Answer

The answer of We can know the original words of...

Question 20

Catholic and Orthodox Christians have a larger canon, including books not in the Jewish and Protestant canons.

Accepted Answer

Catholic and Orthodox Christians have a larger canon that includes additional books referred to as the deuterocanonical books, or Apocrypha, which are not included in the Jewish and Protestant canons.

Quiz 27: Appendix: the Canon and Text of the Bible