Net of work effort, differences in returns to marriage, and motherhood penalties are founded in cultural perceptions of the ideal worker as a cisgender heterosexual man married with children.

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These differences are based on deeply ingrained cultural beliefs about gender roles and the ideal worker. The ideal worker is often seen as a man who works full-time, is fully committed to his career, and has a homemaker spouse who takes care of the household and children. Women who deviate from this ideal by either not marrying or having children or by taking time off from work to fulfill caregiving responsibilities often experience penalties in terms of lower pay, fewer promotions, and less job security. These cultural perceptions also contribute to the gender pay gap and the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions.

Net of Work Effort, Differences in Returns to Marriage, and Motherhood