Question 1

Defend why (or why not) Wakefield's work on vaccinations, despite its ultimate outcome, can be considered as science.

Accepted Answer

Support for the research being science:
It was public and attempted at the goals of science. It described the outcome, it explained why the link existed, and sought to make predictions.
Support for the research being pseudo science:
The research was not objectively conducted. The parent observations were more subjective than objectively recorded but were presented as objective facts. The research also did not strive for truth but sought to support a particular belief. Finally, due to way the data were collected from parents, there was a lack of consistency.

Question 2

Identify one heuristic and one bias outlined in the textbook and explain how they might hypothetically impact the evaluation of a study.

Accepted Answer

The availability heuristic can influence readers' judgment of how likely a claim is true depending on how easily it is imaginable. Therefore, claims that are questionable but seem to make intuitive sense may be more easily believed.
Belief perseverance bias might work in the opposite direction and make true statements more difficult to believe in if the evaluator already has a bias for claims that were previously thought to be true.

Question 3

Present a scientific claim that you recently encountered. Outline the appropriate steps to evaluate this claim based on what you know about research methods.

Accepted Answer

The claim would vary, but students should discuss trusting the experts, reading past literature, and searching for convergence of evidence.

Question 4

Identify two ways that understanding research methods is valuable to the average person and provide an example.

Accepted Answer

The answer of Identify two ways that understanding research methods...

Question 5

Identify the three goals of science and use one coherent example that addresses all three of them.

Accepted Answer

The answer of Identify the three goals of science and...

Question 6

In media reports of scientific findings, researchers are sometimes quoted promoting a particular treatment or product. Which of the following statements presents the claim and rational that you should be most skeptical of?
A) A researcher has conducted cancer research for 5 years; he claims that a particular cancer drug works well are less credible than other researchers who have been in the field for a longer period of time.
B) A researcher conducts experiments with animals; he claims that overcrowding causes stress. This is not credible because his studies do not involve human subjects.
C) A researcher conducts experiments outside the United States of America; he claims that a drug he developed is effective are less credible because his laboratory is outside federal regulations.
D) A researcher conducts experiments for a university that are funded by a pharmaceutical company; he claims that the company's drug is effective is less credible because he has vested interest.

Accepted Answer

Researchers who have a vested interest in the outcome of their study may have biases that affect their interpretation of the results. In this case, the researcher may be promoting the pharmaceutical company's drug in order to maintain their funding or receive other benefits from the company. This does not necessarily mean that the drug is not effective, but it should be viewed with more skepticism and further research should be conducted to confirm the findings.

Question 7

Which of the following does not describe a claim arising from cognitive bias?
A) David claims that mint tea helps with weight loss because he has lost 5 pounds since drinking it everyday.
B) Even when faced with contradictory evidence, Louis still maintains that algae pills cured his allergies.
C) After reading multiple media reports on sleep, Luke claims that everyone should sleep enough to be able to concentrate well.
D) Fred claims that a particular brand of energy drink is most effective because all his friends say so.

Accepted Answer

Option C is not a claim arising from cognitive bias because it is based on scientific evidence and does not involve any personal or subjective beliefs.

Question 8

People often over-estimate the annual number of deaths in plane crashes, compared to the much more numerous car-accident deaths. Jackie agrees and says it's because people are more used to seeing reports of plane accidents and thus it is more salient than reports on car accidents. Jackie is referring to
A) The availability heuristic
B) The anchoring heuristic
C) The discounting of base-rate heuristic
D) The belief perseverance bias

Accepted Answer

The availability heuristic refers to the tendency for people to rely on information that is easily available in their memory when making judgments or decisions. In this case, people are more likely to remember and be influenced by news reports of plane crashes because they stand out as rare and dramatic events, while car accidents are more common and thus less memorable. This leads people to overestimate the frequency of plane crashes relative to car accidents.

Question 9

Which of the following descriptions best describes the cognitive miser model?
A) It helps eliminate bias in the decision-maker by ignoring past information, as this helps the decision-maker focus on the present problem.
B) It helps use a vast amount of information, allowing the decision-maker to synthesize a large amount of data before a decision is made.
C) It maximizes use of past experience and efficiently demands attention to a small amount of presented information.
D) It helps the decision-maker evaluate nearly all possibilities before a decision is made: truly a well-informed decision!

Accepted Answer

The cognitive miser model suggests that humans have limited cognitive resources and therefore must use past experience to efficiently demand attention to the most important and relevant information presented in a decision-making scenario. This allows individuals to use their cognitive resources most effectively and make decisions in an efficient manner. Option A is incorrect as the cognitive miser model does not ignore past information; it uses past information to make efficient decisions. Option B is incorrect as the cognitive miser model specifically refers to the limited cognitive resources available to individuals, so synthesizing a large amount of data would not align with this model. Option D is also incorrect as the cognitive miser model suggests that individuals cannot evaluate all possibilities before making a decision due to their limited cognitive resources.

Question 10

A researcher has obtained preliminary data for one of her studies. Which option best describes the attitude of the scientific community towards preliminary data?
A) Preliminary data is never presented at conferences to prevent over interpretation.
B) Preliminary data seldom differs from the actual data, so conclusions can be drawn from the state of preliminary data.
C) Preliminary data should be interpreted with caution but they are still often presented at conferences to be reviewed and critiqued.
D) Based on preliminary data, researchers are generally able to successfully replicate findings without much to worry about.

Accepted Answer

The scientific community recognizes that preliminary data should be interpreted with caution as they are often incomplete and subject to change. However, they are still often presented at conferences to be reviewed and critiqued, as peer review is an important part of the scientific process. This allows for constructive feedback and guidance to improve the study and ensure accurate and reliable results.

Question 11

Which of the following biases or heuristics make it particularly challenging for researchers to convince the public that the findings might be interesting and novel?
A) Framing effect Bias
B) Overconfidence Bias
C) Ingroup Bias
D) D) Hindsight Bias

Accepted Answer

Hindsight Bias makes it challenging because people tend to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred, making novel findings seem obvious or uninteresting.

Question 12

We have discussed many ways of evaluating research or research-based claims. Which one of the following descriptions is the least reasonable approach?
A) One way to approach evaluating research claims is to take it at face value based on a popular press article. This is because findings in the popular press are always critically based on scientific journals and wouldn't be published without a reason.
B) One way to approach evaluating research claims is to conduct your own research. Most individuals who are posing questions already have knowledge relevant to conducting research, it is often inexpensive, and conducting your own research is the most directly answers the question you are interested in.
C) One way to approach evaluating research claims is to read empirical articles. Although you may find contradictions, these are findings by experts who are trained in conducting research.
D) One way to approach evaluating research claims is to look at similar findings related to the original research questions you had in mind, because this often leads to finding replications that suggest that the claims are strong.

Accepted Answer

The answer of We have discussed many ways of evaluating...

Question 13

The idea of converging evidence is when:
A) the evidence within one study tells a coherent story, addresses the research question clearly and provides a clear conclusion that allows the reader to understand the results.
B) the evidence across multiple studies tells a coherent story, finds a similar pattern of results, and suggests that they are robust.
C) contradictory evidence needs to be converged and taken into consideration because scientific progress is often made by resolving these differences.
D) the combination of results from different studies presents a discovery that was not apparent in any of the individual studies alone.

Accepted Answer

Converging evidence refers to the idea that when multiple studies find similar patterns of results, it provides stronger support for the observed phenomena. It suggests that the results are robust and not just a fluke finding. Hence, option B is the correct answer as it describes the idea of converging evidence across multiple studies. Option A describes the coherence of evidence within a single study, option C refers to the need to resolve contradictory evidence, and option D describes the combination of results from different studies. While these are related to the idea of converging evidence, they do not fully capture the concept.

Question 14

Researchers often present preliminary data. Which one of the following best describes preliminary data?
A) Preliminary data are generally rarely presented publicly. Most scientists know the danger of over interpreting preliminary data, and thus their presentation at conferences is highly discouraged before the research itself is published in a peer-reviewed journal.
B) Preliminary data very rarely, if ever, misses the target. By the time the data has been collected, researchers often have a very clear idea of whether or not the claims are supported or rejected.
C) Preliminary data should be interpreted with caution. But even so, science is a peer-reviewed process and these data are widely accepted at conferences to be presented and critiqued.
D) Preliminary data are very useful for researchers. They exist because they are often related to some of the hottest research topics and findings. Furthermore, based on preliminary findings alone, researchers generally are already able to successfully conduct replications without much to worry about.

Accepted Answer

Preliminary data should be interpreted with caution as they are not yet fully analyzed or verified. However, they are still presented at conferences for peer review and critique. Scientists understand the importance of sharing and discussing findings, even if they are not yet conclusive.

Question 15

Replication is an important aspect of scientific research. However, there are many instances in which replication occurs frequently within a particular laboratory but fails when other research laboratories attempt the experiment. One possibility is due to the ___________, as researchers are often known to have trouble switching views. Another reason may be the ___________, since researchers have vested interests in successfully conducting their work.
A) overconfidence bias; self-serving bias
B) self-serving bias; overconfidence bias
C) belief perseverance; overconfidence bias
D) belief perseverance; self-serving bias

Accepted Answer

Belief perseverance, which is the tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs even when presented with contradictory evidence, could lead researchers to stick to their original methods and conclusions despite failed replications. Self-serving bias, which is the tendency to interpret information in a way that is favorable to oneself, could also play a role as researchers may have a vested interest in their work being successful. However, the tendency to stick to one's initial beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence is a more direct explanation for why replication may fail across different laboratories.

Question 16

Which of the following regarding mood effects and decision fatigue is true?
A) Mood effects only influence research participants since researchers follow strict protocols when conducting research. Decision fatigue influences both the researcher and the participant.
B) Mood effects and decision fatigue both generally only influence the research participant.
C) Mood effects only influences the researcher; participants are often studied in well controlled environments that do not impact their mood. Decision fatigue, on the other hand, only influences the research participant. Repeated trials can exhaust a participant so researchers need to be mindful for how much they are asking from the participant.
D) Mood effects and decision fatigue both influence the researcher and the research participant.

Accepted Answer

Both mood effects and decision fatigue can influence both the researcher and the research participant. Researchers should be mindful of these potential factors when designing and conducting studies. It is important to consider both the participant's mental and emotional state as well as the potential impact on the research team.

Question 17

Your textbook outlined three goals for science. Which of the following is true about these goals?
A) The three goals are design, testing, and conclusion, representing the stages involved in design a study to explore a question.
B) The three goals are description, explanation, and prediction. They are sequential stages that do not interact.
C) The three goals, design, testing, and conclusion are integral in helping researchers look for converging evidence.
D) The three goals are description, explanation, and prediction. They are intertwined stages that influence one another in the scientific process.

Accepted Answer

The three goals of science are description, explanation, and prediction. They are intertwined stages that influence one another in the scientific process. Description involves observing and measuring phenomena, explanation involves identifying the cause and effect relationships, and prediction involves using knowledge gained to make future predictions. These goals are not sequential stages, but instead interact throughout the entire scientific process.

Question 18

One aspect of the scientific method is that it is consistent. Which one of the following claims is not a result of science being conducted in a consistent manner?
A) The findings can be replicated.
B) The findings are generalizable.
C) The findings have the potential to show a convergence of evidence.
D) The findings are reliable.

Accepted Answer

The claim that findings are generalizable is a result of science being conducted in a consistent manner. The other three claims (findings can be replicated, potential to show a convergence of evidence, and findings are reliable) are also results of consistency in the scientific method.

Question 19

What does it mean when the scientific method seeks for objective research?
A) The research must have a clear goal.
B) The research must be based on the scientists' personal beliefs.
C) The research must be based on striving for the truth.
D) The research must have a subjective piece to balance the objective portion.

Accepted Answer

Objective research means that the research should be based on striving for the truth, rather than being influenced by personal beliefs or biases. The scientific method requires that the research is conducted in an unbiased way, with clear goals and a focus on discovering the truth through rigorous experimentation and analysis. This approach helps to ensure that the research is reliable and can be replicated by other scientists, which is an important aspect of scientific research. Therefore, option C accurately depicts the objective research aspect of the scientific method.

Question 20

Which of the following is best categorized as a pseudo-scientific claim?
A) A company claiming that experimental results suggest that their product significantly boosts the immune system.
B) Bob's grandmother claiming that researchers have found that quality sleep affects how memories are consolidated based on an article she read online.
C) A group of expert researchers citing anecdotal evidence in a presentation to claim support to their theory about how stress influences workplace performance.
D) A team of undergraduate students drawing conclusions on social media use based on a survey they conducted in a research methods course.

Accepted Answer

C is categorized as a pseudo-scientific claim because it relies on anecdotal evidence, which is subjective and lacks scientific rigor. The other options involve some level of scientific evidence or methodology, such as experimental results or citations to research articles, even if they may be flawed or not fully supported.

Quiz 1: Introduction to Research Methods

Defend why (or why not) Wakefield's work on vaccinations, despite its ultimate outcome, can be considered as science.

Identify one heuristic and one bias outlined in the textbook and explain how they might hypothetically impact the evaluation of a study.

Present a scientific claim that you recently encountered. Outline the appropriate steps to evaluate this claim based on what you know about research methods.

Identify two ways that understanding research methods is valuable to the average person and provide an example.

Identify the three goals of science and use one coherent example that addresses all three of them.

In media reports of scientific findings, researchers are sometimes quoted promoting a particular treatment or product. Which of the following statements presents the claim and rational that you should be most skeptical of?

Which of the following does not describe a claim arising from cognitive bias?

Which of the following descriptions best describes the cognitive miser model?

A researcher has obtained preliminary data for one of her studies. Which option best describes the attitude of the scientific community towards preliminary data?

Which of the following biases or heuristics make it particularly challenging for researchers to convince the public that the findings might be interesting and novel?

We have discussed many ways of evaluating research or research-based claims. Which one of the following descriptions is the least reasonable approach?

The idea of converging evidence is when:

Researchers often present preliminary data. Which one of the following best describes preliminary data?

Which of the following regarding mood effects and decision fatigue is true?

Your textbook outlined three goals for science. Which of the following is true about these goals?

One aspect of the scientific method is that it is consistent. Which one of the following claims is not a result of science being conducted in a consistent manner?

What does it mean when the scientific method seeks for objective research?

Which of the following is best categorized as a pseudo-scientific claim?