What are the requirements to establish causality? Indicate the meaning of the terms. Also provide an example in which the requirement is absent.
a. __________________________________
b. __________________________________
c. __________________________________

Question

Quizplus · Accepted Answer

The Answer is a. Association. There must be at least some relationship between the variables, meaning that one variable must impact the other variable at least occasionally. There is no relationship between age and gender, between race and weight, or between education and the life expectancy of your dog.
b. Temporal order. If we want to establish causality, variable A must occur prior to variable B. For example, if we theorize that more police (A) will result in less crime, the increased presence of the police must occur prior to a decrease in criminal activity (B).
c. Nonspuriousness. The outcome (DV) is not (better) explained by another variable. Nonspuriousness is absent if we rest the relationship between ice cream and crime, between daylight and the tides, and between IQ and death.

What Are the Requirements to Establish Causality? Indicate the Meaning