Question 1

Fossils of early crocodiles show that early crocodiles must have eaten a mainly vegetarian diet, as they are not found near any fossils of living creatures that would have served as the crocodiles' prey. Instead, they are found near fossils of different kinds of vegetation, many of which no longer exist today. Skeletons of modern crocodiles, on the other hand, are often found near those of other animals, showing that the diet of crocodiles has changed over thousands of years.
The argument assumes that
A)Skeletons of crocodiles' prey are always found directly surrounding a crocodile fossil or skeleton.
B)Fossils or skeletons found near a predatory animal can give an idea of what prey comprised an animal's diet.
C)Crocodiles have existed in their present form for thousands of years.
D)Crocodiles cannot consume plant life and other animals together.
E)Fossils and skeletons are not reliable indicators for interpreting the lives of animals.

Accepted Answer

The argument assumes that fossils or skeletons found near a predatory animal can give an idea of what prey comprised an animal's diet. The argument claims that because only plant fossils were found near ancient crocodiles, those crocodiles must not have eaten other animals. This argument only makes sense if fossils found near an animal's remains are a reliable indicator of what that animal ate.

Question 2

Fossils of early crocodiles show that early crocodiles must have eaten a mainly vegetarian diet, as they are not found near any fossils of living creatures that would have served as the crocodiles' prey. Instead, they are found near fossils of different kinds of vegetation, many of which no longer exist today. Skeletons of modern crocodiles, on the other hand, are often found near those of other animals, showing that the diet of crocodiles has changed over thousands of years.
Which one of the following, if true, would strengthen the conclusion of the preceding paragraph?
A)Recent research has shown that crocodiles have remained virtually the same size and shape for thousands of years.
B)Skeletons of ancient animals are rare, as most deteriorated or were eaten by scavengers before fossilizing.
C)Scientists cannot reliably estimate the age of a fossil.
D)Modern crocodiles have been shown to eat both plants and animals.
E)In research completed across hundreds of species, paleontologists have proven that animal and plant fossils and skeletons found near predator animals are a reliable indicator of their food source.

Accepted Answer

If true, the fact that research across hundreds of species finding that fossils and skeletons of prey found near a predator animals are a reliable indicator of their food source most strengthens the conclusion.

Question 3

Some artists also excel at science and become successful inventors. All inventors have an imaginative, creative mind. Anyone with an imaginative, creative mind is more likely to become an artist than those who do not.
Based on the preceding passage, which of the following must be true?
A)All artists have imaginative, creative minds.
B)Most inventors are also artists.
C)At least one person with an imaginative, creative mind must have become an artist.
D)Everyone with an imaginative, creative mind becomes both an inventor and an artist.
E)Everyone with an imaginative, creative mind becomes either an inventor or an artist, but not both.

Accepted Answer

It must be true that at least one person with an imaginative, creative mind has become an artist. If some artists are successful inventors and all inventors are imaginative and creative, then at least some artists are imaginative and creative. That can be reversed to mean that at least one imaginative and creative person is an artist.

Question 4

A charter school requires all of its teachers to grade each of their six classes on a curved scale. The top 15% of each class receives an A and the bottom 5% fails the class. This system is not fair. If a student is in an exceptionally gifted class, they could fail or receive a poor grade even if they did good work, while a student in an easier class could receive an A for poor work. Furthermore, grades are always arbitrary and teachers are likely to reward students they like better with higher marks.
Which of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument?
A)Some schools require their teachers to rank students.
B)A fair ranking system involves a certain proportion of students receiving an A and some students receiving an F.
C)No matter what ranking system is used, teachers are likely to reward their favorite students with high marks.
D)A quota system for each of a teacher's classes is not a fair way to grade students.
E)More students deserve to fail than this system allows.

Accepted Answer

The main conclusion of the argument is that a quota system for each of a teacher's classes is not a fair way to grade students. The passage describes the grading system and then points out the weaknesses of the system in order to prove answer D, making it the main point of the passage.

Question 5

Psychologist: "A study of college students revealed that those students suffering from depression are more likely to eat junk food as opposed to healthier snacks. Another recent study proved that workers who work overnight shifts have higher rates of depression than those who work day or evening shifts. Thus it is very likely that poor eating habits are a cause of depression, as overnight workers also often have a poor diet due to their inability to keep a consistent schedule and easily share meals with others."
The reasoning in the psychologist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
A)Presumes, without providing justification, that university students have a higher rate of depression than do overnight workers.
B)Fails to consider the possibility that poor eating habits are an effect, not a cause, of depression.
C)Fails to give a definition for what constitutes depression.
D)Presumes that all depression is caused by the same thing in all people.
E)Presumes that overnight workers are less healthy than those who work other shifts.

Accepted Answer

The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider the possibility that poor eating habits are an effect, not a cause, of depression. The passage provides evidence that depression and poor eating habits are linked, but does not prove causation.

Question 6

Psychologist: "A study of college students revealed that those students suffering from depression are more likely to eat junk food as opposed to healthier snacks. Another recent study proved that workers who work overnight shifts have higher rates of depression than those who work day or evening shifts. Thus it is very likely that poor eating habits are a cause of depression, as overnight workers also often have a poor diet due to their inability to keep a consistent schedule and easily share meals with others."
If added to the original passage, which of the following would most strengthen the psychologist's argument?
A)In another study, depression sufferers who tracked their eating habits found that when they ate more nutritious foods their symptoms of depression decreased.
B)People with depression often suffer from other illnesses as well.
C)Another study showed that students with depression were more likely to have lower grades and lower participation levels in student activities.
D)In another study, overnight workers who exercised at least three times a week had lower rates of depression than those who did not.
E)Depression is often under diagnosed and the rates of depression in the general population is probably much greater than is currently known.

Accepted Answer

If added to the original passage, the fact that depression sufferers who tracked their eating habits found that when they ate more nutritious foods their symptoms of depression decreased would most strengthen the psychologist's argument. In order to strengthen the argument, additional information must show that a diet of junk food is not just correlated with, but can contribute to, depression. Answer A does this by showing that depression sufferers can lessen their symptoms by following a healthier diet.

Question 7

In a public library, one of the duties of a librarian is to acquire books library patrons will find enjoyable and important. It goes without saying then that acquiring the most popular works is part of a librarian's job.
Which of the following is an assumption made by the passage above?
A)Library patrons will not be satisfied unless librarians acquire only works of important, groundbreaking literature.
B)Library patrons will find at least some popular works to be enjoyable and important.
C)Library patrons will not be satisfied unless their library carries all current popular works.
D)The work of a librarian is still essential for modern day libraries.
E)There are no books that are both popular and important.

Accepted Answer

The passage assumes that library patrons will not be satisfied unless their library carries current popular works. The passage starts by saying that librarians have a duty to find enjoyable and important works, and then argues that they can do this by finding popular works. In order for this to be true there must be some overlap between popular and enjoyable, important works.

Question 8

Insurance manager: "Our system estimates a 'risk rate' for each car owner based on their driving history. Some may question the ability of a computer system to reliably estimate each driver's risk of an accident. However, the figures provided by the program are remarkably consistent, so we can be sure the program is reliable."
The reasoning in the insurance manager's argument is flawed because
A)Fails to establish whether reliability or consistency is a more important trait for a computer program.
B)Regards reliability as the sole criterion for judging the efficacy of a computer program.
C)Fails to consider that a computer program could produce consistent results without those results being reliable.
D)Fails to consider that a computer program can never substitute for human knowledge.
E)Fails to consider that driving history is not an appropriate metric to use to predict a driver's risk of an accident.

Accepted Answer

The reasoning is flawed because it fails to consider that a computer program could produce consistent results that are not reliable. The manager claims that the program is reliable because the figures are consistent, but consistency does not have to guarantee reliability.

Question 9

Everyone in Masonville is permitted to use the basketball courts each day. However, no children under 12 are allowed to use the courts between noon and 3 PM, the hours of 3 PM to 6 PM are reserved for those over 55, and finally, after 6 PM the courts are reserved for teens aged 12 to 20.
If all of the sentences above are true, which of the following must also be true?
A)The majority of people in Masonville do not have small children.
B)No one in Masonville has a child under 12.
C)The courts are most popular after 6 PM.
D)The courts are in use everyday.
E)A 15 year old can use the courts anytime except for between 3 PM and 6 PM.

Accepted Answer

It must be true that a 15 year old can use the courts anytime except for between 3 PM and 6 PM. All of the other answers could be true, but do not have to be true.

Question 10

Whenever Josephine's house is cleaned, it is always cleaned by Happy Maids. She never allows anyone else to clean her house, and she never cleans it herself. Josephine's house was cleaned yesterday, so Happy Maids cleaned Josephine's house yesterday.
The pattern of reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which of the following?
A)Whenever Charlie washes his car, he takes it to either Superwash or Maxwash. Maxwash was closed this morning, so Charlie must have taken his car to Superwash.
B)Wanda is grumpy whenever she can't eat breakfast, and she can't eat breakfast whenever she has to arrive at work before 8 AM. Therefore, Wanda is only grumpy on days she has to arrive at work before 8 AM.
C)There are no bananas in Rosa's kitchen. Since Rosa always eats at least one banana per day, and she always keeps her bananas on the counter, someone else must have eaten all of Rosa's bananas.
D)Kurt's boots are covered in mud, and they only get muddy when he goes to his cousin's farm. Kurt's boots were muddy this morning, so he must have visited the farm.
E)Alyssa went to either the grocery store or the deli today, but not both. Since she came home with deli meat, it is clear she went to the deli and not the grocery store.

Accepted Answer

The pattern of reasoning in the original argument is most similar to that in answer D. In the original, it is proven that because something only happens when another event occurs, if that event occurs, it is proof of the second event occurring. In D, because Kurt's boots are only muddy if he goes to the farm, his boots being muddy is proof that he went to the farm.

Question 11

A recent study revealed that test scores for students at small, rural schools were lower than that for students in large, urban or suburban schools.
Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the difference in test scores EXCEPT:
A)Rural schools are small, so teachers are better able to pay attention to the individual needs of students.
B)A large school has multiple administrators, allowing each of them to focus on certain aspects of the school rather than being pulled in many directions.
C)Teachers at large schools make more money than those at small schools, giving the schools a more talented pool of applicants.
D)Teachers at large schools tend to have more teaching assistants and programs in place to help them aid struggling students.
E)Large schools are able to place struggling students in special sections, which allow them to receive extra attention.

Accepted Answer

Rural schools allowing teachers to pay better attention to individual needs of students would not explain why their test scores are lower. Every other response explains an advantage large schools have over rural schools, which could lead to higher test scores.

Question 12

Some anthropologists believe that ancient humans did not practice monogamy, and point to cave drawings of men surrounded by multiple women as proof of their theory. However, many modern works of art also depict men taking multiple lovers, yet many modern humans do practice monogamy. Therefore, _____________________________________.
Which of the following most logically completes the argument?
A)Clearly ancient humans did practice monogamy.
B)We will never know whether ancient humans practiced monogamy or not.
C)It is unclear at what point humans went from a mainly polyamorous to a monogamous lifestyle.
D)Ancient cave drawings are not a reliable source for proving that ancient humans practiced monogamy.
E)At most only a few ancient humans practiced monogamy.

Accepted Answer

The most logical completion to the argument is that ancient cave drawings are not a reliable source for proving that ancient humans practiced monogamy. The passage casts doubt on the evidence cited by the anthropologists, but does not completely discredit their theory. The cited source is a weak one, but cannot be shown to be definitively true or false.

Question 13

All people want to be perceived as friendly and personable. Those people who are perceived as shy or quiet often come across as less friendly, even if this is not true. Thus, it is important to try to talk to people, even if conversation does not come easily to a shy person.
Which one of the following assumptions is necessary for the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn?
A)It is important to be perceived as friendly and personable.
B)People who are outgoing are also friendly.
C)Talkative people are always friendly and personable.
D)People who are perceived as shy or quiet are often not friendly.
E)It is not important to talk to people if one is already perceived as friendly.

Accepted Answer

It must be assumed that it is important to be perceived as friendly and personable for the conclusion to be properly drawn. The argument states that it is important to talk to people because shy people who do not talk to others are often perceived as less than friendly. If this is true, then it must be true that it is important to be perceived as friendly, making A the correct answer.

Question 14

All of a town's residents entered a yearlong weight loss challenge. The goal was to test whether exercising more increased a participant's chances of losing weight. In the end, although the participants who exercised the most did not lose the most weight, the challenge organizers determined that more exercise did lead to greater weight loss.
Which of the following, if true, most helps explain how the organizers drew the above conclusion?
A)The participants who did not exercise did lose a small amount of weight.
B)For each participant, the more he or she exercised, the more weight he or she lost.
C)The participants' weight loss tended to slow as the year progressed.
D)Participants who exercised more enjoyed other benefits, such as increased happiness and a more active lifestyle.
E)The participants who lost the most weight also changed their diets.

Accepted Answer

If each participant lost more weight the more he or she exercised, that explains how the organizers concluded that increasing exercise bettered the chances of losing weight. Even though the group results were different, this answer shows at an individual level, the prediction was true, resolving the apparent paradox.

Question 15

Mayor: "Many on the town council are arguing that our city should start making decisions by direct ballot, as opposed to votes by the town council. I think this is an excellent idea. Giving each person one vote on each issue is more likely to recognize each individual voice, as opposed to just the voices of those powerful enough or popular enough to hold sway with the town council."
Which one of the following principles helps justifies the mayor's reasoning?
A)Electoral procedures should equally represent all viewpoints.
B)Voting procedures should take into account the fact that some members of society are more able to make good decisions than others.
C)Important issues should only be decided by those with knowledge of the problem and able to make informed decisions.
D)An elected body is unable to accurately represent the concerns of citizens unless it consists of a representative sample of the overall population.
E)It is important to make economically appropriate decisions regarding voting procedures.

Accepted Answer

The principle that justifies the mayor's reasoning is that electoral procedures should ensure equity in the representation of various viewpoints. The mayor is concerned that the current system only benefits those with power or popularity.

Question 16

Mayor: "Many on the town council are arguing that our city should start making decisions by direct ballot, as opposed to votes by the town council. I think this is an excellent idea. Giving each person one vote on each issue is more likely to recognize each individual voice, as opposed to just the voices of those powerful enough or popular enough to hold sway with the town council."
Which of the following, if true, would most support the mayor's argument?
A)In past elections, the town's voter turnout has been extremely low.
B)Most members of the town council oppose the mayor's proposal, as it would diminish their influence.
C)Members of the town council often vote in accordance with the wishes of their major campaign funders.
D)The town is very well educated and so citizens are able to articulate their viewpoints.
E)Most town council members serve an average of ten-year terms.

Accepted Answer

The fact that members of the town council often vote in accordance with the wishes of their major campaign funders most supports the mayor's argument. Campaign funders having undue sway over the town council shows that all citizens do not have an equal voice in town politics, bolstering the mayor's claim that there are problems with the current political system.

Question 17

The California Condor should not be displayed in any zoo. The bird was recently nearly extinct, and its population is only increasing now due to sustained efforts and governmental regulation. Displaying the bird in a zoo would make people believe that there are more California Condors in the wild than is really the case, and may prompt people to be more likely to hunt the bird or stop contributing to its preservation.
The reasoning above most closely conforms to which of the following examples?
A)Zoos are cruel to animals and should not be patronized.
B)Zoos should not display endangered animals.
C)Protection of an animal species should take priority over displaying the animal in a zoo.
D)Enjoyment of the public should take priority over the protection of endangered animals.
E)A zoo should focus on displaying large, exotic animals and not bird species native to this country.

Accepted Answer

The reasoning above most closely conforms to the principle that protection of an animal species should take priority over displaying the animal in a zoo. The passage reasons that the condor should not be displayed because its display might inhibit efforts to preserve the bird.

Question 18

Nutritionist: "Many consumers drink diet drinks with fake sweeteners in the hopes that these drinks will help them cut calories and maintain a healthier diet for weight loss. They are mistaken, however, because even though the drinks might have fewer calories, the chemicals in the drinks trigger the mind to desire sweet or fattening foods. Research has shown that when people drink diet sodas, they are more likely to crave unhealthy food."
Which of the following is the main point of the passage?
A)If people want to lose weight, it is nearly impossible to do so.
B)Diet sodas are more unhealthy than regular sodas.
C)Diet sodas are unlikely to assist a person in their weight loss goals.
D)Diet sodas contain hidden calories not apparent to the consumer.
E)People tend to consume the same amount of calories, whether dieting or not dieting.

Accepted Answer

The main point of the passage is that diet sodas are unlikely to assist a person in their weight loss goals. The passage explains how diet sodas may seem healthier but lead to poor choices, inhibiting weight loss. It does not say that diet sodas are more or less healthy than other sodas, or that weight loss is impossible, only that drinking diet soda is unlikely to assist weight loss efforts.

Question 19

Analyst: "Credit card companies often offer new customers great incentives, such as 0% interest or large amounts of cash back. This is not a wise practice, however, as new customers are the most likely to default on their bills, and the majority of a credit card company's revenue comes from keeping long term customers, who do not benefit from the new customer offers."
Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the analyst's argument?
A)Most credit card companies do not offer new member bonuses.
B)A credit card company cannot offer 0% financing to everyone or it could not make a profit.
C)Most people remain loyal to their credit card companies regardless of the incentives offered.
D)Some credit card companies obtain many new members from these special offers.
E)New customers who sign up during these special periods have a bankruptcy rate double that of those who sign up without special incentives.

Accepted Answer

The analyst's argument is strengthened if new customers who sign up during these special periods have a bankruptcy rate double that of those who sign up without special incentives. If the customers recruited due to the special incentives are not desirable customers, then the passage is correct in stating that attracting new customers through incentives is not a wise practice.

Question 20

Critic: "Works of historical research published by mainstream publishers are less likely to be cited by other academics than those published by the academic press. Clearly, it appears that academics are strongly prejudiced against mainstream works, and judge historical works in the mainstream press as having no academic merit."
The critic's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
A)Argues against a counterargument that does not exist.
B)Relies on an ad hominem attack to discredit mainstream publishers.
C)Fails to consider the possibility that mainstream historical publications have less academic merit than others.
D)Fails to consider the possibility that mainstream publishers are prejudiced against serious academics.
E)Uses circular logic to arrive at its conclusion.

Accepted Answer

The critic's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider the possibility that mainstream historical publications do have less academic merit than others. The argument claims that the lack of future citations for mainstream publications must be due to prejudice on the part of academics, but that prejudice does not necessarily exist if the works in question actually have less academic merit than others.

Quiz 1: Logical Reasoning

Some artists also excel at science and become successful inventors. All inventors have an imaginative, creative mind. Anyone with an imaginative, creative mind is more likely to become an artist than those who do not. Based on the preceding passage, which of the following must be true?

In a public library, one of the duties of a librarian is to acquire books library patrons will find enjoyable and important. It goes without saying then that acquiring the most popular works is part of a librarian's job. Which of the following is an assumption made by the passage above?

A recent study revealed that test scores for students at small, rural schools were lower than that for students in large, urban or suburban schools. Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the difference in test scores EXCEPT: