In a series of experiments, Steele and Aronson (1995) had both African-American and white students at Stanford University take a verbal test.In one condition, the test was described as a valid measure of intelligence, and in the other condition, the test was described as neither a reliable nor valid measure of intelligence.In the former condition, African Americans performed more poorly than did white students because

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African American students experienced stereotype threat, which is the fear that one's performance will confirm a negative stereotype about one's group. The African American students were aware of the stereotype that their group performs poorly on tests of intelligence, and this awareness can lead to anxiety and reduced performance. In the condition where the test was described as a reliable measure of intelligence, stereotype threat was more pronounced, leading to poorer performance by African American students.

In a Series of Experiments, Steele and Aronson (1995) Had