Archaeologist Timothy Earle has challenged the hypothesis by Elman Service that chiefdoms arose through regional symbiosis. Earle suggests that the key factor in the evolution of chiefdoms was the:

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Timothy Earle argues that the key factor in the development of chiefdoms was the degree of political and economic control held over productive resources and labor. This suggests that the emergence of chiefdoms was not a result of regional symbiosis, but rather of the concentration of power and control over resources in the hands of a select few. Option A may be a contributing factor in the development of chiefdoms, but it is not the key factor. Option B is also relevant, but it is focused on the control of land, rather than resources and labor. Option D and E are not supported by Earle's argument.

Archaeologist Timothy Earle Has Challenged the Hypothesis by Elman Service