Discuss how the interpersonal,behavioural,cognitive,and learned helplessness models of depression differ.

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--Interpersonal model: Depression as a social disorder.James Coyne hypothesized that depression creates interpersonal problems (Coyne,1976;Joiner & Coyne,1999;Rudolph et al. ,2006).When people become depressed,he argued,they seek excessive reassurance,which,in turn,leads others to dislike and reject them.Depression is a vicious cycle.Depressed people often elicit hostility and rejection from others,which,in turn,maintains or worsens their depression.
Behavioural model: Depression as a loss of reinforcement.Peter Lewinsohn's (1974)behavioural model assumes that depression results from a low rate of response-contingent positive reinforcement.Put in simpler terms,when depressed people try different things and receive no payoff for them,they eventually give up.They stop participating in many pleasant activities,leaving them little opportunity to obtain reinforcement from other people.In time,their personal and social worlds shrink,as depression seeps into virtually every nook and cranny of their lives.Lewinsohn later observed that depressed people sometimes lack social skills (Segrin,2000;Youngren & Lewinsohn,1980),making it even harder for them to obtain reinforcement from others.To make matters worse,if people respond to depressed individuals with sympathy and concern,they may reinforce and maintain these individuals' withdrawal.This view implies a straightforward recipe for breaking the grip of depression: pushing ourselves to engage in pleasant activities.Sometimes merely getting out of bed can be the first step toward conquering depression.
Cognitive model: Depression as a disorder of thinking.In contrast,Aaron Beck's influential cognitive model of depression holds that depression is caused by negative beliefs and expectations (Beck,1967,1987).Beck focused on the cognitive triad,three components of depressed thinking: negative views of oneself,one's experiences,and the future.These habitual thought patterns,called negative schemas,presumably originate in early experiences of loss,failure,and rejection.Activated by stressful events in later life,these schemas reinforce depressed people's negative experiences (Scher,Ingram,& Segal,2005).Depressed people's view of the world is bleak because they put a decidedly negative mental spin on their experiences.They also suffer from cognitive distortions,that is,skewed ways of thinking.Two examples are overgeneralization and selective abstraction.People engage in overgeneralization when they draw an extremely broad conclusion on the basis of a specific fact or minor event.After receiving a parking ticket,a woman might conclude she's worthless and that nothing will ever go right for her.People engage in selective abstraction when they draw a negative conclusion based on only an isolated aspect of a situation.A man might consistently single out a trivial error he committed in a softball game and blame himself completely for the loss.It's as though depressed people were wearing glasses that filtered out all of life's positive experiences and brought all of life's negative experiences into sharper focus.
Learned helplessness: Depression as a consequence of uncontrollable events.Bruce Overmier and Martin Seligman (1967)described learned helplessness as the tendency to feel helpless in the face of events we can't control and argued that it offers an animal model of depression.They noted striking parallels between the effects of learned helplessness and depressive symptoms: passivity,appetite and weight loss,and difficulty learning that one can change circumstances for the better.But we must be cautious in drawing conclusions from animal studies because many psychological conditions,including depression,may differ in animals and humans (Raulin & Lilienfeld,2008).

Discuss How the Interpersonal,behavioural,cognitive,and Learned Helplessness Models of Depression Differ