Question 1

An important condition for establishing causation is covariation. This is:
A) a statistical measure of the magnitude of the difference between comparison groups.
B) the degree to which a study parallels the real world.
C) the degree to which researchers can rule out other possible causal explanations for an observed relationship.
D) when changes in one variable are associated with changes in another variable.

Accepted Answer

Covariation refers to the idea that changes in one variable are associated with changes in another variable. This is an important condition for establishing causation, as it suggests that there is a relationship between the two variables that could potentially be causal in nature. However, covariation alone is not sufficient to establish causation, as there may be other possible causal explanations for the observed relationship.

Question 2

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario II
Scenario II is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Kouchaki, M., Gino, F. & Jami, A. (2014). The burden of guilt: Heavy backpacks, light snacks, and enhanced morality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 414-424.
Weight and Guilt
Kouchaki and colleagues hypothesized that excess weight leads to emotional guilt. To that end, they asked participants to wear either a heavy backpack (12 pounds) or a light backpack (2 pounds) while sitting on a stool to "evaluate the quality of the backpack." In reality, the researchers were not interested in the participants' perception of the backpack's quality, but in how the weight of the backpack may subconsciously affect their behavior. As such, when the participants were leaving the laboratory they were told they may take a snack from a basket as a thank you for participating in the study. Two types of snacks were available: healthy and not healthy. The results revealed that 78% of the participants in the heavy backpack condition selected the healthy snack compared with only 48% of participants in the light backpack condition. The authors concluded that the type of snack the groups of participants chose indicates that an increase in weight causes one to experience feelings of guilt.
-(Scenario II) Which of the following is NOT critically required to establish causality?
A) temporal precedence
B) covariation
C) experimental realism
D) extraneous variables

Accepted Answer

The answer of Use the following to answer questions
Scenario II
Scenario...

Question 3

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario III
Scenario III is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Borota, D., Murray, E., Keceli, G., et al. (2014). Post-study caffeine administration enhances memory consolidation in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 17(2), 201-203.
Caffeine and Memory Study
The purpose of this study was to determine whether caffeine enhances memory. The researchers obtained a sample of 73 adults who were studied images of objects. Following the study session, half the participants received 200 mg of caffeine while the other half did not. The participants returned to the lab 24 hours later where they were tested for their memory of the images. To that end, the participants were shown a number of images, some of which they had studied (old) and some of which they had not (new), and were asked to indicate whether they were old or new. The results revealed that consuming caffeine just after study significantly improved the participants' ability to discriminate between old and new images. The authors concluded that this study provides evidence for the memory-enhancing potential of caffeine, particularly when it is consumed after study.
-(Scenario III) The experimental group in Scenario III included those who received ____________, whereas the control group included those _______________.
A) caffeine; who did not receive caffeine
B) a placebo; who received caffeine
C) 200mg of caffeine; 100mg of caffeine
D) 100mg of caffeine; a placebo

Accepted Answer

The experimental group in Scenario III received caffeine, as stated in the study description. The control group is described as the group that did not receive caffeine, eliminating options B, C, and D.

Question 4

Imagine that you are studying the effect of sour tastes on the human salivation response. In designing this study, what are you likely to ask participants in your experimental condition to do?
A) taste something sweet
B) taste something sour
C) salivate
D) not salivate

Accepted Answer

To study the effect of sour tastes on human salivation, participants in the experimental condition should be asked to taste something sour. Salivation is already the response being measured in this study, so asking participants to salivate wouldn't make sense. Asking participants to taste something sweet or not salivate wouldn't be relevant to the research question.

Question 5

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario III
Scenario III is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Borota, D., Murray, E., Keceli, G., et al. (2014). Post-study caffeine administration enhances memory consolidation in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 17(2), 201-203.
Caffeine and Memory Study
The purpose of this study was to determine whether caffeine enhances memory. The researchers obtained a sample of 73 adults who were studied images of objects. Following the study session, half the participants received 200 mg of caffeine while the other half did not. The participants returned to the lab 24 hours later where they were tested for their memory of the images. To that end, the participants were shown a number of images, some of which they had studied (old) and some of which they had not (new), and were asked to indicate whether they were old or new. The results revealed that consuming caffeine just after study significantly improved the participants' ability to discriminate between old and new images. The authors concluded that this study provides evidence for the memory-enhancing potential of caffeine, particularly when it is consumed after study.
-(Scenario III) Suppose the researchers who conducted the study described in Scenario III surveyed participants about their caffeine use. Based on their answers, each participant was then assigned to the caffeine condition or control condition. This method of assignment is best described as:
A) random.
B) nonrandom.
C) matched.
D) pseudo-random.

Accepted Answer

The method of assignment described in Scenario III is nonrandom because participants were not randomly assigned to the caffeine or control condition. Instead, they were assigned based on their self-reported caffeine use. This introduces the potential for selection bias, as individuals who consume high levels of caffeine may differ from those who do not in ways that could affect the outcomes of the study.

Question 6

Professor Carlson is interested in understanding whether uniform color impacts football players' performances. In his study, _____ is manipulated and _____ is measured.
A) performance; uniform color
B) uniform color; performance
C) performance; which team is playing
D) uniform color; years of playing experience

Accepted Answer

In the study, uniform color is manipulated (changed by the researcher), and performance is measured (observed by the researcher). Therefore, the correct choice is B - uniform color; performance.

Question 7

If you are interested in determining whether fatigue causes negative mood, you would need to conduct a(n):
A) interview.
B) survey.
C) experiment.
D) observational study.

Accepted Answer

In order to determine causality, an experiment is necessary. In this case, the independent variable would be the level of fatigue (which would be manipulated), and the dependent variable would be negative mood (which would be measured). By randomly assigning participants to a fatigue or control condition, and then measuring their negative mood levels, researchers could determine whether fatigue causes negative mood.

Question 8

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario II
Scenario II is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Kouchaki, M., Gino, F. & Jami, A. (2014). The burden of guilt: Heavy backpacks, light snacks, and enhanced morality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 414-424.
Weight and Guilt
Kouchaki and colleagues hypothesized that excess weight leads to emotional guilt. To that end, they asked participants to wear either a heavy backpack (12 pounds) or a light backpack (2 pounds) while sitting on a stool to "evaluate the quality of the backpack." In reality, the researchers were not interested in the participants' perception of the backpack's quality, but in how the weight of the backpack may subconsciously affect their behavior. As such, when the participants were leaving the laboratory they were told they may take a snack from a basket as a thank you for participating in the study. Two types of snacks were available: healthy and not healthy. The results revealed that 78% of the participants in the heavy backpack condition selected the healthy snack compared with only 48% of participants in the light backpack condition. The authors concluded that the type of snack the groups of participants chose indicates that an increase in weight causes one to experience feelings of guilt.
-(Scenario II) Based on the information provided in the scenario, how did Kouchaki and colleagues operationally define guilt?
A) a feeling of shame or regret
B) backpack weight
C) selecting a healthy snack
D) a negative evaluation of the backpack

Accepted Answer

The answer of Use the following to answer questions
Scenario II
Scenario...

Question 9

Covariation tells us:
A) that one variable causes changes in another variable.
B) that two variables are associated with each other.
C) that two variables are not associated with each other.
D) that one variable is not responsible for changes in another variable.

Accepted Answer

Covariation refers to the degree to which two variables are associated with each other. It does not necessarily indicate a causal relationship between the variables, but rather a statistical relationship where changes in one variable are accompanied by changes in another variable. Option A suggests causality, which cannot be determined by covariation alone. Option C suggests no relationship, which is not true for variables that show covariance. Option D is also incorrect, as the presence of covariation suggests that one variable is linked to changes in another variable, even if this does not imply causality.

Question 10

Which of the following requires examination using experimental research?
A) the effect of practice on performance
B) the relationship between height and weight
C) the role of gender on athleticism
D) the relationship between head circumference and intelligence

Accepted Answer

Experimental research is needed to determine causation, such as the effect of practice on performance, by manipulating variables and observing outcomes.

Question 11

Temporal precedence is established by showing that changes in the suspected cause occur _____ changes in the outcome.
A) before
B) at the same time as
C) after
D) regardless of

Accepted Answer

Temporal precedence refers to the order of events, where the suspected cause must precede the outcome. Therefore, changes in the suspected cause must occur before changes in the outcome.

Question 12

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario III
Scenario III is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Borota, D., Murray, E., Keceli, G., et al. (2014). Post-study caffeine administration enhances memory consolidation in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 17(2), 201-203.
Caffeine and Memory Study
The purpose of this study was to determine whether caffeine enhances memory. The researchers obtained a sample of 73 adults who were studied images of objects. Following the study session, half the participants received 200 mg of caffeine while the other half did not. The participants returned to the lab 24 hours later where they were tested for their memory of the images. To that end, the participants were shown a number of images, some of which they had studied (old) and some of which they had not (new), and were asked to indicate whether they were old or new. The results revealed that consuming caffeine just after study significantly improved the participants' ability to discriminate between old and new images. The authors concluded that this study provides evidence for the memory-enhancing potential of caffeine, particularly when it is consumed after study.
-(Scenario III) The researchers who conducted the study described in Scenario III were able to make a causal statement about the effect of caffeine on memory because:
A) they conducted their study in a laboratory setting.
B) they examined memory in only those who were naïve to caffeine.
C) they randomly assigned participants to treatment conditions and controlled how much caffeine each condition received.
D) they performed an independent t-test.

Accepted Answer

The researchers randomly assigned participants to treatment conditions (receiving caffeine or not) and controlled the amount of caffeine each condition received. This suggests that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the administration of caffeine and enhanced memory.

Question 13

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario III
Scenario III is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Borota, D., Murray, E., Keceli, G., et al. (2014). Post-study caffeine administration enhances memory consolidation in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 17(2), 201-203.
Caffeine and Memory Study
The purpose of this study was to determine whether caffeine enhances memory. The researchers obtained a sample of 73 adults who were studied images of objects. Following the study session, half the participants received 200 mg of caffeine while the other half did not. The participants returned to the lab 24 hours later where they were tested for their memory of the images. To that end, the participants were shown a number of images, some of which they had studied (old) and some of which they had not (new), and were asked to indicate whether they were old or new. The results revealed that consuming caffeine just after study significantly improved the participants' ability to discriminate between old and new images. The authors concluded that this study provides evidence for the memory-enhancing potential of caffeine, particularly when it is consumed after study.
-(Scenario III) In Scenario III the researchers included only those participants who were not regular caffeine drinkers. In doing do, the researchers:
A) increased experimental control.
B) minimized tolerance as an extraneous variable.
C) increased the internal validity of the study.
D) All of the above.

Accepted Answer

By including only participants who were not regular caffeine drinkers, the researchers increased experimental control by eliminating individual differences in caffeine tolerance as an extraneous variable. This, in turn, increased the internal validity of the study by reducing the potential for confounding variables to impact the results. Therefore, all of the above choices are correct.

Question 14

For which of the following would using experimental research NOT be appropriate?
A) the influence of weight lifting on aggression
B) the impact of snacking on weight gain
C) the relationship between eye color and IQ
D) the impact of alcohol consumption on behavioral inhibition

Accepted Answer

Experimental research is not appropriate for studying the relationship between eye color and IQ because it involves variables that cannot be manipulated or controlled experimentally. Eye color is a genetic trait and cannot be changed for the purpose of an experiment.

Question 15

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario II
Scenario II is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Kouchaki, M., Gino, F. & Jami, A. (2014). The burden of guilt: Heavy backpacks, light snacks, and enhanced morality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 414-424.
Weight and Guilt
Kouchaki and colleagues hypothesized that excess weight leads to emotional guilt. To that end, they asked participants to wear either a heavy backpack (12 pounds) or a light backpack (2 pounds) while sitting on a stool to "evaluate the quality of the backpack." In reality, the researchers were not interested in the participants' perception of the backpack's quality, but in how the weight of the backpack may subconsciously affect their behavior. As such, when the participants were leaving the laboratory they were told they may take a snack from a basket as a thank you for participating in the study. Two types of snacks were available: healthy and not healthy. The results revealed that 78% of the participants in the heavy backpack condition selected the healthy snack compared with only 48% of participants in the light backpack condition. The authors concluded that the type of snack the groups of participants chose indicates that an increase in weight causes one to experience feelings of guilt.
-(Scenario II) By randomly assigning participants to the heavy backpack condition or light backpack condition, the experimenters have:
A) reduced the likelihood that the participants will stay blinded to the research hypothesis.
B) minimized the influence of factors other than weight on their snack preference.
C) increased the external validity of the study.
D) ensured that only weight caused the participants' snack preference.

Accepted Answer

Randomly assigning participants to either the heavy or light backpack condition helps to minimize the influence of extraneous variables on their snack preference, thus increasing the internal validity of the study.

Question 16

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario II
Scenario II is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Kouchaki, M., Gino, F. & Jami, A. (2014). The burden of guilt: Heavy backpacks, light snacks, and enhanced morality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 414-424.
Weight and Guilt
Kouchaki and colleagues hypothesized that excess weight leads to emotional guilt. To that end, they asked participants to wear either a heavy backpack (12 pounds) or a light backpack (2 pounds) while sitting on a stool to "evaluate the quality of the backpack." In reality, the researchers were not interested in the participants' perception of the backpack's quality, but in how the weight of the backpack may subconsciously affect their behavior. As such, when the participants were leaving the laboratory they were told they may take a snack from a basket as a thank you for participating in the study. Two types of snacks were available: healthy and not healthy. The results revealed that 78% of the participants in the heavy backpack condition selected the healthy snack compared with only 48% of participants in the light backpack condition. The authors concluded that the type of snack the groups of participants chose indicates that an increase in weight causes one to experience feelings of guilt.
-(Scenario II) Suppose the researchers manipulated the independent variable such that the heavy backpack was 5 pounds and the light backpack was 3 pounds. After conducting the study they saw no difference between the groups when choosing a snack. Prior to the study the researchers should have probably conducted a(n):
A) simple experiment.
B) independent sample t-test.
C) two-group design.
D) manipulation check.

Accepted Answer

A manipulation check would have allowed the researchers to ensure that the manipulation of the independent variable (weight of the backpack) had the desired effect on the participants' behavior (choosing a healthy snack). By conducting a manipulation check, they could have identified any potential issues with their manipulation before conducting the full study.

Question 17

A factor other than the intended treatment that may change the outcome variable is known as:
A) covariation.
B) an extraneous variable.
C) internal validity.
D) temporal precedence.

Accepted Answer

An extraneous variable is a factor that is not the intended treatment but may influence the outcome variable. Covariation refers to the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Internal validity refers to the extent to which a study has accurately measured the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Temporal precedence refers to the direction of the causal relationship (i.e. whether the independent variable preceded the dependent variable in time).

Question 18

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario II
Scenario II is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Kouchaki, M., Gino, F. & Jami, A. (2014). The burden of guilt: Heavy backpacks, light snacks, and enhanced morality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 414-424.
Weight and Guilt
Kouchaki and colleagues hypothesized that excess weight leads to emotional guilt. To that end, they asked participants to wear either a heavy backpack (12 pounds) or a light backpack (2 pounds) while sitting on a stool to "evaluate the quality of the backpack." In reality, the researchers were not interested in the participants' perception of the backpack's quality, but in how the weight of the backpack may subconsciously affect their behavior. As such, when the participants were leaving the laboratory they were told they may take a snack from a basket as a thank you for participating in the study. Two types of snacks were available: healthy and not healthy. The results revealed that 78% of the participants in the heavy backpack condition selected the healthy snack compared with only 48% of participants in the light backpack condition. The authors concluded that the type of snack the groups of participants chose indicates that an increase in weight causes one to experience feelings of guilt.
-(Scenario II) During the experiment one participant in the heavy backpack condition mentioned he had not eaten all day and was starving. In contrast to the majority of the other participants in the heavy backpack condition, he opted for the high-calorie, nonhealthy snack when leaving the laboratory. According to your text what should a good researcher do in this case?
A) conduct a manipulation check
B) record this in their researcher notes
C) remove the participant from the study
D) reject the null hypothesis

Accepted Answer

Recording this information in the researcher notes is important as it provides additional context and information about the experiment. This can be useful in the analysis and interpretation of the results. Removing the participant from the study or rejecting the null hypothesis are not necessary or appropriate actions in this case. Conducting a manipulation check, although important in other contexts, is not relevant here as the experiment did not involve a manipulation of a variable, but rather an observation of behavior in response to a task.

Question 19

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario III
Scenario III is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Borota, D., Murray, E., Keceli, G., et al. (2014). Post-study caffeine administration enhances memory consolidation in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 17(2), 201-203.
Caffeine and Memory Study
The purpose of this study was to determine whether caffeine enhances memory. The researchers obtained a sample of 73 adults who were studied images of objects. Following the study session, half the participants received 200 mg of caffeine while the other half did not. The participants returned to the lab 24 hours later where they were tested for their memory of the images. To that end, the participants were shown a number of images, some of which they had studied (old) and some of which they had not (new), and were asked to indicate whether they were old or new. The results revealed that consuming caffeine just after study significantly improved the participants' ability to discriminate between old and new images. The authors concluded that this study provides evidence for the memory-enhancing potential of caffeine, particularly when it is consumed after study.
-(Scenario III) The null hypothesis of the study described in Scenario III is:
A) caffeine will improve memory.
B) caffeine will impair memory.
C) caffeine will have no effect on memory.
D) caffeine may improve or impair memory.

Accepted Answer

The null hypothesis in this study is that caffeine will have no effect on memory. This hypothesis assumes that there is no significant difference between the memory performance of participants who consume caffeine after the study and those who do not. The researchers are attempting to reject this null hypothesis by showing that caffeine does, in fact, have a positive effect on memory.

Question 20

Use the following to answer questions
Scenario II
Scenario II is based on fabricated data inspired by the following study:
Kouchaki, M., Gino, F. & Jami, A. (2014). The burden of guilt: Heavy backpacks, light snacks, and enhanced morality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 414-424.
Weight and Guilt
Kouchaki and colleagues hypothesized that excess weight leads to emotional guilt. To that end, they asked participants to wear either a heavy backpack (12 pounds) or a light backpack (2 pounds) while sitting on a stool to "evaluate the quality of the backpack." In reality, the researchers were not interested in the participants' perception of the backpack's quality, but in how the weight of the backpack may subconsciously affect their behavior. As such, when the participants were leaving the laboratory they were told they may take a snack from a basket as a thank you for participating in the study. Two types of snacks were available: healthy and not healthy. The results revealed that 78% of the participants in the heavy backpack condition selected the healthy snack compared with only 48% of participants in the light backpack condition. The authors concluded that the type of snack the groups of participants chose indicates that an increase in weight causes one to experience feelings of guilt.
-(Scenario II) Regardless of their assigned treatment condition, all participants were told, "We are working on manufacturing a new backpack and are interested in your thoughts. Please put this backpack on and have a seat." By using this standard this script the researchers were enhancing:
A) internal validity.
B) experimental realism.
C) experimental control.
D) mundane realism.

Accepted Answer

The answer of Use the following to answer questions
Scenario II
Scenario...

Quiz 8: Two-Group Design: Texting: I Cant Get You Out of My Mind

An important condition for establishing causation is covariation. This is:

Imagine that you are studying the effect of sour tastes on the human salivation response. In designing this study, what are you likely to ask participants in your experimental condition to do?

Professor Carlson is interested in understanding whether uniform color impacts football players' performances. In his study, _ is manipulated and _ is measured.

If you are interested in determining whether fatigue causes negative mood, you would need to conduct a(n) :

Covariation tells us:

Which of the following requires examination using experimental research?

Temporal precedence is established by showing that changes in the suspected cause occur _____ changes in the outcome.

For which of the following would using experimental research NOT be appropriate?

A factor other than the intended treatment that may change the outcome variable is known as: