Question 1

The tendency to look for evidence supporting one particular hypothesis and not considering other possibilities is known as the

Accepted Answer

The tendency to look for evidence that supports one particular hypothesis and not considering other possibilities is known as confirmation bias. This bias can prevent individuals from considering alternative explanations or information that could contradict their favored hypothesis. The availability heuristic refers to the tendency to rely on easily recalled information when making judgments. The base-rate error occurs when individuals make judgments based solely on probability, without considering other relevant information. The framing effect occurs when the way information is presented or framed can influence an individual’s decision-making. None of these options accurately describes the scenario presented in the question.

Question 2

People are most likely to be overconfident in the accuracy of their predictions when predicting

Accepted Answer

People tend to be overconfident in their own abilities and accomplishments, therefore they are most likely to be overconfident in the accuracy of their predictions regarding their own accomplishments.

Question 3

Not considering using an item (e.g.dime)in a non-traditional way (e.g.as a screwdriver)is an example of

Accepted Answer

Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in its traditional and intended way. In this case, not considering using a dime as a screwdriver is an example of functional fixedness. Confirmation bias refers to the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs or attitudes. Framing effect refers to the way in which different phrasing or presentation of information can influence decision-making. The base-rate fallacy, also known as the base-rate bias, refers to the tendency to rely too heavily on the base-rate information when making judgements about the probability of an event. None of these options are relevant to this scenario.

Question 4

Someone tells you that if you say "abracadabra" every morning you will stay healthy.You say it daily,and,sure enough,you stay healthy.You conclude that saying this magic word really does ensure health.What error in thinking have you made?

Accepted Answer

The error in thinking made is premature commitment to one hypothesis, as the conclusion is based on a single cause and effect observation without considering other possible factors that could have contributed to their health.

Question 5

Fox and Crow are both thirsty.They come upon a large crock with some water in it,but cannot lift the pitcher or reach down to the water.There happens to be a bucket of baseballs nearby and Fox steps back to throw the baseballs to try to break the crock.Crow reminds him that this will only spill the water,and uses the more clever solution of dropping the baseballs into the crock to raise the water level to within reach.Fox's problem was

Accepted Answer

Fox was only able to see the baseballs as a means of breaking the crock, due to functional fixedness – the tendency to see objects as only having one specific use or function. Crow, on the other hand, was able to think creatively and use the baseballs in a different way to solve the problem.

Question 6

Most people would prefer to take some action that would save 200 lives than an action that has a one-third chance of saving 600 lives.Which of the following procedures is most likely to get them to change their minds?

Accepted Answer

Reframing the question to focus on avoiding a loss rather than saving lives can influence decision-making due to loss aversion, where losses are felt more strongly than gains. This can make the riskier option more appealing if it is seen as avoiding a greater loss.

Question 7

Under which circumstances are people most likely to take a gamble?

Accepted Answer

The answer of Under which circumstances are people most likely...

Question 8

Critical thinking can best be defined as

Accepted Answer

Critical thinking involves carefully analyzing evidence and arguments for and against a conclusion, as well as considering alternative perspectives and potential biases. It is a process of evaluating information in a systematic and logical manner to come to a well-informed and reasoned conclusion. Choice B refers more to goal setting, choice C to creative thinking, and choice D is not related to critical thinking at all.

Question 9

Students are told that "2-4-6" is one example of a rule;they are asked to determine what the rule is.Many students assume the rule is "three consecutive even numbers" and fail to check whether 1-3-5 is also an example of the rule,or even 1-10-11.What mistake in reasoning have they made?

Accepted Answer

The students have made the mistake of confirmation bias, which is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities. In this case, they only look for patterns that match their initial assumption (three consecutive even numbers) and fail to test or consider examples that could disprove their hypothesis.

Question 10

Some people believe Friday the 13th is unlucky because they can remember times when they had bad experiences on that day but tend to forget times when nothing bad happened.Their reasoning is an example of illusory correlations.It is also an example of the use of

Accepted Answer

The use of remembering negative experiences on Friday the 13th and forgetting times when nothing bad happened is an example of the availability heuristic, which is a cognitive shortcut where we rely on readily available or easily recalled examples to make judgments or decisions.

Question 11

You develop the belief (hypothesis)that your significant other wants to break up with you.You have a phone conversation in which your significant other sounds stressed out but says several nice things about you.According to the confirmation bias,you are most likely to

Accepted Answer

Confirmation bias leads individuals to pay more attention to evidence that supports their existing beliefs, in this case, the belief that the significant other wants to break up, thus focusing on the stressed tone rather than the nice comments.

Question 12

When given a comparable choice between a certain outcome and a risky outcome,people generally choose the

Accepted Answer

The answer of When given a comparable choice between a...

Question 13

Functional fixedness is a special case of the:

Accepted Answer

Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used, which is a specific form of confirmation bias. Confirmation bias involves favoring information that confirms previously existing beliefs or biases, and functional fixedness is a manifestation of this as it confirms the traditional or known uses of an object, ignoring other potential uses.

Question 14

Critical thinking involves

Accepted Answer

Critical thinking involves evaluating both evidence for and against a conclusion in order to make the most informed and reasonable decision. Simply evaluating evidence for a conclusion or assuming the correctness of a conclusion without examination would not qualify as critical thinking.

Question 15

You are given a candle,a box of matches,a few thumbtacks,and a very short piece of string with the instruction to mount the candle on a wall.It never occurs to you that you could empty the matchbox and tack it to the wall as a platform for the candle because of

Accepted Answer

The answer of You are given a candle,a box of...

Question 16

Subjects in an experiment were shown photographs of a scene and were asked to identify the scene.Some subjects were shown two versions (the first one extremely out of focus and the second slightly out of focus)while others saw only the second,slightly blurry photo.What were the results and why?

Accepted Answer

The answer of Subjects in an experiment were shown photographs...

Question 17

In one study experts made predictions of U.S.and world politics over the next several years.How accurate were their predictions,compared to the predictions the general public might make,and how confident were they in their predictions?

Accepted Answer

Studies, including those by Philip Tetlock, have shown that experts are often no more accurate than the general public in making predictions about political events, but they tend to be much more confident in their predictions.

Question 18

Research by cognitive psychologists has found that people who make a career of predicting events in world politics (news analysts,government officials,talk-show hosts,etc. )

Accepted Answer

Cognitive psychologists have found that people who make a career of predicting events in world politics, such as news analysts, government officials, and talk-show hosts, generally make predictions that are not very accurate. This is due to the high complexity and unpredictability of political situations. Adhering consistently to the views of one or another political party (option A) may lead to bias and narrow-mindedness rather than accuracy. The rise to their current positions (option C) may be due to a variety of factors other than innate talent, such as networking and experience. To the best of our knowledge, there are no widely used simple mathematical formulas (option D) for predicting complex political situations.

Question 19

In one study,people who make their living predicting world events (government officials,foreign policy professors,newspaper columnists,etc. )were asked to predict U.S.and world politics over the next several years.Those who were most accurate were more likely than others to

Accepted Answer

Those who were most accurate in their predictions tended to have reservations about the accuracy of their predictions. This suggests a level of humility and openness to complexity, which can lead to more nuanced and careful analysis, improving prediction accuracy.

Question 20

The willingness to do something we wouldn't otherwise choose to do because of money or effort already spent is termed the

Accepted Answer

The willingness to continue with a project or decision because of the investment already made is known as sunk cost effect. This is because people tend to place more value on what they have already invested than the potential outcome of their decision. The other options do not accurately describe this concept.

Quiz 8: Cognition and Language