Question 1

Curtis believes that redheads are hot-tempered and aggressive.Because of this belief,Curtis frequently behaves aggressively toward redheads.Not surprisingly,Curtis's behavior often makes redheads angry at him,and it occasionally leads to aggressive confrontations.Curtis appears to be engaging in:

Accepted Answer

Curtis's belief about redheads is influencing his behavior toward them, which is resulting in confirmation of his belief. This is known as behavioral confirmation, where a person's behavior elicits responses that confirm their initial beliefs or expectations.

Question 2

According to David Hume,even if all the observations scientists make are consistent with a conclusion,it is always possible that they will eventually make a new observation that violates this conclusion and proves it wrong.This is known as the problem _______.

Accepted Answer

David Hume's problem is known as the problem of induction, which is the idea that past observations of a phenomenon do not necessarily guarantee the same outcome in the future. Thus, scientific conclusions are only tentative and subject to possible revision in the light of new evidence.

Question 3

Most people believe strongly in gravity because they have repeatedly observed that when specific objects are dropped,the objects (e.g. ,pins,piñatas,pianos)always fall to the earth.According to the text,this form of reasoning is referred to as:

Accepted Answer

The form of reasoning described in the text, based on repeatedly observed events or patterns, is known as induction. Deduction involves logical conclusions drawn from premises while validation refers to the process of verifying or testing the validity of a hypothesis or claim.

Question 4

Which of the following things is LEAST precise and coherent?

Accepted Answer

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or prediction that has not been fully tested or confirmed. It is the least precise and coherent because it is not based on extensive evidence, and it is more of a guess or hunch than a well-supported idea. In contrast, a canon, theory, and law are all more precise and coherent because they are based on extensive evidence, have been thoroughly tested, and are widely accepted within their respective fields.

Question 5

_____ usually have more empirical support th______,which usually have more empirical support th______.

Accepted Answer

Laws are well-established principles that have been repeatedly tested and are generally accepted as true. Theories are well-substantiated explanations that are based on a body of evidence. Hypotheses are proposed explanations that are tested through experimentation and observation.

Question 6

Which approach to scientific hypothesis testing would a logical positivist such as Karl Popper be most likely to support?

Accepted Answer

Logical Positivism emphasizes on falsification, where a scientific hypothesis must be testable and that a negative result of a test will lead to its rejection. Karl Popper, a prominent logical positivist philosopher, argued that science advances by rejecting or falsifying hypotheses rather than proving them.

Question 7

The notion that there are many different causes for aggression is an example of:

Accepted Answer

The concept of equifinality suggests that there are various factors or causes that can lead to a similar outcome, which in this case is aggression. This idea highlights the complexity and multifaceted nature of aggression, which can arise from different individual, social, and environmental factors.

Question 8

Felix collected convincing experimental data suggesting that cigarette smoking causes lung cancer.He therefore concluded that exposure to air pollution does not cause lung cancer.Felix has failed to appreciate the principle of:

Accepted Answer

Felix's conclusion overlooks the principle of equifinality, which suggests that a given end state can be reached by many potential means or causes. In this case, he fails to consider that both cigarette smoking and air pollution could contribute to lung cancer, not just one or the other.

Question 9

_____ are predictions about specific events that are derived from one or mo_____.

Accepted Answer

Hypotheses are specific predictions that stem from broader theories, serving as a bridge between theoretical frameworks and empirical investigation.

Question 10

The method of deduction can be described as:

Accepted Answer

Deductive reasoning starts with a general theory or hypothesis and uses logical steps to derive a specific conclusion. This method is commonly used in mathematics and philosophy.

Question 11

Which approach to scientific hypothesis testing is similar to the bias demonstrated in Wason's (1971)"E,K,4,7" experiment?

Accepted Answer

Wason's experiment demonstrated confirmation bias, where people tend to seek information that confirms their existing beliefs. Validation is similar as it involves seeking evidence that supports a hypothesis rather than trying to disprove it.

Question 12

In contrast to laws,theories do not always make accurate predictions.This is partly because of:

Accepted Answer

Boundary conditions refer to the limitations and circumstances under which a theory may be applicable. Theories may not always make accurate predictions if these boundary conditions are not taken into account. For example, Newton's law of gravity works well for objects in our daily environment but does not accurately describe the behavior of objects moving at high speeds or in extreme gravitational fields. Therefore, the choice A, boundary conditions, is the best answer as it explains why theories may not always make accurate predictions. Poor testability refers to the inability to test a theory, parsimony refers to the simplicity of a theory, and logical positivism is a philosophical approach to science that emphasizes the importance of verifiable evidence. While these factors may also contribute to why theories do not always make accurate predictions, they are not as directly related to the limitations of the theory's applicability as boundary conditions.

Question 13

According to the text,the principle _____ refers to the idea that the same behavior is often produced by many different causes.

Accepted Answer

Equifinality refers to the idea that the same behavior can be caused by many different factors or pathways. It is a core principle of systems theory, which emphasizes that behavior is not solely determined by one factor but rather arises from the interactions between multiple factors.

Question 14

Theories are typically used to generate specific research:

Accepted Answer

Theories provide a basis for forming hypotheses, which are specific statements that can be tested through research. Therefore, theories do not directly generate research designs, laws or conclusions.

Question 15

Social psychologists once thought that the fundamental attribution error was a basic feature of human social judgment.Later,research showed that people in India do not make this error.This is an example _______.

Accepted Answer

The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others' behavior. The discovery that people in India do not make this error challenges the universality of this concept, illustrating the problem of induction. The problem of induction involves making broad generalizations based on specific observations, which can lead to incorrect conclusions when exceptions are found.

Question 16

A general statement about the relation between two or more variables is called a:

Accepted Answer

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about a specific variable relationship. A law is a statement about a particular phenomenon that is always true under certain conditions. A construct is an abstract concept that represents a complex phenomenon, often used in psychology and social sciences. A theory is a well-substantiated explanation for a range of phenomena. Therefore, a general statement about the relation between two or more variables is best described as a theory.

Question 17

For hypotheses to serve as good tests of specific theories,they must:

Accepted Answer

For hypotheses to serve as good tests of specific theories, they must follow in a clear and logical fashion from the theories in question. This means that the hypotheses should be derived from the theory and should be able to explain the phenomenon in question based on the assumptions and principles of the theory. While generating predictions that disagree with common sense can be useful in some cases, it is not a necessary criterion for a good test of a theory. Emphasizing causal relations between variables and providing comprehensive statements about reality are also important aspects of good hypotheses, but they are not as critical as logical coherence with the theory being tested.

Question 18

Wason (1971)used the "E,K,4,7" task to demonstrate:

Accepted Answer

The "E,K,4,7" task by Wason (1971) is used to demonstrate the positive test bias, which is the tendency for people to test hypotheses in a way that confirms rather than disconfirms their hypotheses.

Question 19

Dr.Rose showed that aggression is predicted well by genetic factors.In contrast,Dr.Jones showed that aggression is predicted well by environmental factors.Which principle suggests that Dr.Rose and Dr.Jones may both be correct?

Accepted Answer

The principle of equifinality suggests that there are multiple pathways through which a particular outcome can be achieved. In this case, it is possible that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to aggression, meaning that Dr. Rose and Dr. Jones may both be correct in their findings. Equifinality allows for the possibility of multiple causal pathways leading to the same outcome.

Question 20

A_______ is a universal statement that allows reliable predictions of future events.

Accepted Answer

A law is a scientific statement that has been extensively tested and found to be universally true under specific conditions. It enables scientists to make reliable predictions about future events. A theory, on the other hand, is an explanation for a phenomenon based on a collection of facts, observations, and hypotheses. It is subject to revision or abandonment if new evidence arises. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for an observation or phenomenon that requires further testing. Proof is a term used in mathematics to describe a logical argument that establishes the truth of a statement.

Quiz 2: How Do We Find Out