A true experiment is said to have _____ when the independent variable and no other variable has caused the changes in the dependent variable.

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Internal validity refers to the degree to which a research study is free from confounds and alternative explanations. In a true experiment, internal validity is achieved when the independent variable is the only factor that causes changes in the dependent variable, indicating a causal relationship between the two variables. Covariation (A) refers to the degree to which two variables are related, while external validity (B) refers to the degree to which findings can be generalized to other populations and settings. Time order (D) refers to the temporal sequence of events, with the independent variable preceding the dependent variable in time. While important for establishing causality, time order alone is not sufficient for establishing internal validity.

A True Experiment Is Said to Have _____ When the Independent