Question 1

Researchers have found that _________ in many different areas all rely heavily on the use of __________ to guide problem solving in their fields.

Accepted Answer

Experts in various fields use schemas, which are organized patterns of thought or behavior, to guide problem-solving. Schemas help in understanding complex information and applying it effectively in problem-solving scenarios.

Question 2

When using means-ends analysis, and intermediate steps toward a solution are formulated, we often utilize another heuristic called __________.

Accepted Answer

Subgoal analysis is often used in conjunction with means-ends analysis as it involves breaking down a problem into smaller, more manageable parts or steps (subgoals) to make it easier to reach the final goal.

Question 3

Algorithms are to ____________ as heuristics are to ___________.

Accepted Answer

Algorithms are step-by-step procedures for calculations, data processing, and automated reasoning tasks, aiming for exhaustive and complete solutions. Heuristics, on the other hand, are more about finding efficient, quick solutions that are "good enough" for solving problems, especially when an exhaustive search is impractical.

Question 4

A heuristic is most strongly associated with __________.

Accepted Answer

Heuristics are mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others. They are most strongly associated with problem-solving schemas, which are strategies or methods used in problem-solving and decision-making. Unlike algorithms, which are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution but can be time-consuming, heuristics provide a quicker, more efficient way of solving problems, although they do not guarantee a correct solution.

Question 5

You ask several of your friends to rate the likelihood of the following statements: (1) There will be a flood in British Columbia, (2) There will be an earthquake in British Columbia that causes a flood. Almost all of your friends rate statement (2) as more likely. These likelihood estimates are _____________ and illustrate the use of _____________.

Accepted Answer

These likelihood estimates are incorrect because the probability of two events happening together (an earthquake causing a flood) is always less than or equal to the probability of either event happening alone. This illustrates the use of the representativeness heuristic, where people judge the probability of an event by how much it seems to represent, or match, existing prototypes in their minds, leading them to overestimate the likelihood of conjunctive events.

Question 6

If you want an average weight of 10 dogs, you could add up their total weight and then divide by 10 (the number of dogs). This strategy would work every time and always give you the correct average because it is a(n) ________.

Accepted Answer

An algorithm is a set of step-by-step instructions or rules designed to perform a specific task or solve a particular problem. In this case, adding up the total weight of the dogs and then dividing by the number of dogs is a precise method that guarantees the correct average weight every time, fitting the definition of an algorithm.

Question 7

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the importance and value of ___________ was demonstrated.

Accepted Answer

Subgoal analysis is a problem-solving technique that involves breaking down a complex problem into smaller, more manageable subgoals. This technique was demonstrated in the Tower of Hanoi problem, where the goal was to move a stack of disks from one peg to another, following certain rules. By breaking down the problem into smaller subgoals, it became easier to solve.

Question 8

Suppose you have a friend who strongly believes that he makes higher grades on tests when he wears his "lucky shirt." Because of the confirmation bias, he is very likely to ________.

Accepted Answer

Confirmation bias leads individuals to focus on information that confirms their beliefs and ignore information that contradicts them. Therefore, your friend is likely to forget the times he wore his lucky shirt but still made low test grades.

Question 9

The concept of overconfidence is most closely associated with which of the following concepts?

Accepted Answer

Overconfidence is closely associated with confirmation bias, where individuals tend to favor information that confirms their preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, often leading to overestimating the accuracy of their own knowledge or judgments.

Question 10

To infer how closely something fits our prototype for a particular class, and also to infer the likelihood that it belongs to that class, we use the ______________.

Accepted Answer

The representativeness heuristic is used to infer how closely something fits our prototype for a particular class, and also to infer the likelihood that it belongs to that class. This heuristic involves making judgments based on how much the items resemble what we consider to be the typical member of the category.

Question 11

Which happens more frequently: death by asthma or death by tornadoes? People typically believe that tornadoes cause more deaths, but statistics reveal that asthma actually causes significantly more deaths. Some researchers argue that we make this error because TV news dramatically publicizes deaths due to tornadoes, which presumably makes it much easier for us to call up these examples. This particular finding is best considered as an example of a judgment error caused by ________.

Accepted Answer

The error in judgment described is best considered an example of the availability heuristic. This heuristic involves making decisions based on how easily examples come to mind, which can be heavily influenced by media coverage and personal experiences, leading to a skewed perception of frequency or risk.

Question 12

General problem-solving strategies that often involve short cuts and may or may not generate the correct answer are called ______________.

Accepted Answer

Heuristics are general problem-solving strategies that often involve short cuts and may or may not generate the correct answer. Propositions are statements that express a relationship between concepts. Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct answer. Mental sets are preconceived notions about how to approach a problem based on past experiences or strategies.

Question 13

Formulas such as the one used to determine the lengths of the sides of a right triangle (a2 + b2 = c2) are considered to be examples of ___________, whereas problem-solving techniques such as means-ends analysis are considered to be ___________.

Accepted Answer

Formulas like the Pythagorean theorem (a^2 + b^2 = c^2) are considered algorithms because they provide a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem. Means-ends analysis, on the other hand, is a heuristic, which is a more general problem-solving strategy that might not guarantee a correct solution but is useful for making the problem-solving process more efficient.

Question 14

Our tendency to prove or validate beliefs that we already hold instead of looking for evidence to disprove our assumptions is referred as ______________.

Accepted Answer

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities.

Question 15

The crow-and-trains problem discussed in the text asked you to determine the total distance a crow would fly while flying back and forth between two converging trains. If you initially conceptualize it as a distance problem, it is very difficult to solve; if you frame the problem in terms of _________, it is relatively easy to arrive at the solution.

Accepted Answer

Framing the crow-and-trains problem in terms of time simplifies the solution process because it allows for calculating the total distance based on the crow's speed and the time until the trains converge, rather than trying to track the complex back-and-forth flight path.

Question 16

According to the text, mental blueprints or step-by-step scripts for selecting information and solving specialized classes of problems are called ________.

Accepted Answer

Problem-solving schemas refer to mental blueprints or step-by-step scripts for selecting information and solving specialized classes of problems. They help individuals efficiently deal with situations they have encountered before by applying learned strategies.

Question 17

When asked to rate how confident one is in the accuracy of their factual knowledge, beliefs, and predictions, most people ________.

Accepted Answer

Most people tend to be overconfident in the accuracy of their factual knowledge, beliefs, and predictions, often rating their confidence higher than what is justified by their actual knowledge or performance.

Question 18

Procedures that result in a correct solution every time are called ____________, whereas procedures that sometimes, but not always, result in a correct solution are called _____________.

Accepted Answer

Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution every time they are applied, whereas heuristics are general problem-solving strategies that may not always lead to a correct solution but can simplify complex problems and reduce the number of solutions to consider.

Question 19

We identify differences between the present situation and the desired goal state and then make changes to reduce these differences when using ____________ to solve a problem.

Accepted Answer

The means-ends analysis is a problem-solving technique where differences between the current situation and the desired goal are identified, and then changes are made to reduce these differences.

Question 20

One of the primary advantages of using a(n) _____________ to solve a problem is that if used correctly, it will always generate the correct answer.

Accepted Answer

Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution to a problem if followed correctly, unlike heuristics or mental sets that may not always lead to the correct answer.

Quiz 9: Language and Thinking

Researchers have found that _ in many different areas all rely heavily on the use of __ to guide problem solving in their fields.