Question 1

Instructions: Identify the following. Be as specific as possible, and include names, dates, and relevant facts as appropriate. Be sure to explain the significance of the person or term. 
Timber Culture Act, Desert Land Act

Accepted Answer

The Timber Culture Act and the Desert Land Act were both important pieces of legislation in the United States related to land use and settlement in the 19th century.

The Timber Culture Act was passed in 1873 and allowed homesteaders to claim an additional 160 acres of land if they agreed to plant a certain number of trees on a portion of their land. This was an effort to encourage tree planting and reforestation in the Great Plains and other areas where trees were scarce. The act was significant because it aimed to address the issue of deforestation and promote sustainable land use practices.

The Desert Land Act, passed in 1877, allowed individuals to claim up to 640 acres of desert land for a small fee, provided they irrigated a portion of the land within three years. This act was significant because it aimed to encourage settlement and agricultural development in arid regions of the western United States, particularly in states like California, Oregon, and Nevada.

Both acts were part of the larger effort to encourage westward expansion and settlement in the United States, and they had a significant impact on the distribution of land and the development of natural resources in the country.

Question 2

Instructions: Identify the following. Be as specific as possible, and include names, dates, and relevant facts as appropriate. Be sure to explain the significance of the person or term. 
Juan Cortina

Accepted Answer

Juan Nepomuceno Cortina Goseacochea (May 16, 1824 – October 30, 1894), also known as Juan Cortina or the "Red Robber of the Rio Grande," was a Mexican rancher, politician, military leader, outlaw, and folk hero. He is a significant historical figure in the border region between the United States and Mexico, particularly in the area of the Rio Grande Valley in Texas.

Cortina was born into a prominent Tejano family in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas, and his family also owned land on the American side of the Rio Grande after Texas became independent and later joined the United States. He was well-educated and fluent in both Spanish and English, which was unusual for the region at the time.

The significance of Juan Cortina lies in his role during a period of great tension between the United States and Mexico, as well as between Anglo-American settlers and Mexican Texans (Tejanos). After witnessing the beating of a Tejano ranch hand by a marshal in Brownsville, Texas, in 1859, Cortina led a group of men in a series of armed confrontations known as the Cortina Wars. These conflicts were partly a response to the injustices suffered by the Mexican-American population, including land theft and racial discrimination.

Cortina's actions made him a hero to many Tejanos and Mexicans, who saw him as a defender of their rights and dignity. To Anglo-Americans, however, he was often viewed as a bandit and a threat to law and order. His private army controlled a large area of the lower Rio Grande Valley for a time, resisting both Texan and Mexican forces.

In December 1859, Cortina issued the "Cortina Proclamation," which outlined his grievances and the reasons for his rebellion. Despite initial successes, his forces were eventually defeated by a combination of U.S. Army troops and Texas Rangers in 1861.

Cortina continued to be involved in cross-border politics and conflicts, including during the French intervention in Mexico. He was captured by Mexican authorities in 1875 and spent the last years of his life in prison.

Juan Cortina's legacy is complex; he is remembered as a folk hero, a social bandit, and a symbol of resistance against oppression. His life and actions reflect the broader struggles of the Mexican-American community during a period of significant change and conflict in the borderlands.

Question 3

Instructions: Identify the following. Be as specific as possible, and include names, dates, and relevant facts as appropriate. Be sure to explain the significance of the person or term. 
Board of Indian Commissioners

Accepted Answer

The Board of Indian Commissioners was a United States advisory body established by Congress to oversee American Indian policy and the administration of Indian affairs. It was created by an act of Congress on April 10, 1869, during the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant. The Board was part of Grant's Peace Policy, which aimed to reform the management of Indian affairs following years of conflict, corruption, and mismanagement.

The Board consisted of unpaid commissioners who were appointed by the President of the United States. These commissioners were typically philanthropists, religious leaders, and reformers who were expected to bring a humanitarian approach to Indian policy. They were tasked with overseeing the expenditure of government funds, ensuring that treaty obligations were fulfilled, and inspecting the various Indian agencies to prevent corruption and abuse.

The significance of the Board of Indian Commissioners lies in its role in shaping federal Indian policy during a critical period in American history. It represented an early attempt to involve civilian oversight in Indian affairs, with the goal of promoting peace and protecting the rights and welfare of Native American tribes. The Board advocated for education, health care, and the "civilization" of Native Americans, which, under the prevailing ideology of the time, often meant assimilation into Euro-American culture.

Despite its good intentions, the Board's efforts were often met with challenges, including resistance from Indian agents, lack of proper funding, and the complexities of navigating the diverse cultures and needs of various tribes. Moreover, the Board's emphasis on assimilation and the allotment of tribal lands to individual ownership (as later codified in the Dawes Act of 1887) ultimately contributed to the loss of tribal lands and the erosion of Native American cultures.

The Board of Indian Commissioners operated until the mid-20th century, but its influence waned over time as the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) within the Department of the Interior took on more direct control of Indian policy. The legacy of the Board is mixed; while it represented an early effort to reform Indian policy and combat corruption, its actions also reflected the paternalistic and assimilationist attitudes of the era that have since been widely criticized.

Question 4

Instructions: Identify the following. Be as specific as possible, and include names, dates, and relevant facts as appropriate. Be sure to explain the significance of the person or term. 
Helen Hunt Jackson

Accepted Answer