Question 1

Instructions: Identify the following term(s). 
Kepler

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Kepler generally refers to Johannes Kepler, a key figure in the scientific revolution of the 17th century. Born on December 27, 1571, in the Holy Roman Empire, Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. He is best known for his laws of planetary motion, which provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

Kepler's three major contributions to astronomy are:

1. **Kepler's First Law (The Law of Ellipses)**: This law states that the orbit of a planet around the sun is an ellipse with the sun at one of the two foci.

2. **Kepler's Second Law (The Law of Equal Areas)**: This law describes the speed at which any given planet will move while orbiting the sun. It states that a line segment joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.

3. **Kepler's Third Law (The Harmonic Law)**: This law relates the time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun (its orbital period) to its average distance from the sun, stating that the square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

In addition to his work on planetary motion, Kepler made important contributions to optics and was an advocate of the Copernican system, which posited that the Earth and other planets orbit the sun.

The term "Kepler" may also refer to various objects and missions named after Johannes Kepler, such as the Kepler Space Telescope. This space observatory, operated by NASA from 2009 to 2018, was designed to discover Earth-size planets orbiting other stars by detecting the slight dimming that occurs when a planet transits, or passes in front of, its star. The Kepler mission was highly successful, confirming thousands of exoplanets and revolutionizing our understanding of planetary systems.

Question 2

What characteristics of European civilization encouraged the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment and what factors prevented these developments in China?

Accepted Answer

The characteristics of European civilization that encouraged the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment included a spirit of inquiry and exploration, a growing middle class that supported intellectual pursuits, and a decentralized political structure that allowed for a diversity of ideas to flourish. Additionally, the printing press played a crucial role in disseminating new scientific and philosophical ideas.

On the other hand, in China, the centralized political structure and emphasis on traditional Confucian values hindered the development of scientific and philosophical advancements. The Confucian emphasis on tradition and hierarchy discouraged questioning and innovation, while the bureaucratic system limited opportunities for individuals to pursue independent research and intellectual pursuits. Additionally, the Chinese civil service examination system focused on memorization and regurgitation of classical texts, rather than critical thinking and experimentation.

Furthermore, the Chinese emphasis on practical knowledge and technological advancements, such as in agriculture and engineering, may have diverted attention away from theoretical and abstract scientific inquiry. This focus on practical applications of knowledge, while beneficial in many ways, may have limited the development of theoretical science and philosophy in China.

Overall, the characteristics of European civilization, such as a spirit of inquiry, a growing middle class, and a decentralized political structure, encouraged the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment, while the centralized political structure, emphasis on tradition, and practical focus in China hindered similar developments.

Question 3

What was the relationship of the Enlightenment to the Scientific Revolution? Could the Enlightenment have occurred without the Scientific Revolution?

Accepted Answer

The Enlightenment was closely related to the Scientific Revolution as it built upon the ideas and discoveries of the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution, which took place in the 16th and 17th centuries, was a period of great advancements in science, mathematics, and philosophy. It challenged traditional beliefs and paved the way for a new way of thinking based on reason, evidence, and empirical observation.

The Enlightenment, which occurred in the 18th century, was a philosophical movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. It was heavily influenced by the scientific discoveries and rational thinking that emerged during the Scientific Revolution. Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Locke sought to apply the principles of the Scientific Revolution to society, politics, and religion, advocating for freedom, equality, and the pursuit of knowledge.

It is unlikely that the Enlightenment could have occurred without the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment by challenging traditional beliefs and promoting a new way of understanding the world. The emphasis on reason, evidence, and empirical observation that emerged during the Scientific Revolution provided the intellectual foundation for the Enlightenment's emphasis on rational thinking and skepticism of traditional authority.

In conclusion, the Enlightenment was closely related to the Scientific Revolution, and it is unlikely that the Enlightenment could have occurred without the advancements and intellectual shifts that took place during the Scientific Revolution. The two movements were interconnected and built upon each other, shaping the modern world and our understanding of science, reason, and society.

Question 4

Discuss the positive and the negative contributions of Napoleon to the French Revolution and to Europe generally in the early nineteenth century. Would France and Europe have been better off if he had never attained political power? Why or why not?

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Question 5

Instructions: Identify the following term(s). 
Nicholas Copernicus

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Nicholas Copernicus...

Question 6

How "revolutionary" was the French Revolution? Give specific examples.

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Question 7

Instructions: Identify the following term(s). 
Scientific Revolution

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Scientific Revolution...

Question 8

Why were the ideas of Copernicus and Galileo so controversial in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?

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Question 9

Which revolution -- the American Revolution or the French Revolution - was the most "revolutionary"? Why? Be specific.

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Question 10

How did European ideas about the natures of, and the relationships between, science and religion change during the seventeenth century? Were these changes restricted to just the intellectual classes? Why and or why not?

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Question 11

Compare the "high" and "popular" cultures of the mid-eighteenth centuries to today's culture. Is there any "high culture" left in the modern world? If so, what, and if not, why not?

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Question 12

Take a position on the famous question of whether Napoleon was the "author or undertaker" of the French Revolution. Defend your position with specific examples.

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Question 13

Discuss the emergence of the social sciences in terms of their philosophical foundations and the ideas of individuals such as John Locke and Adam Smith.

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Question 14

Describe the major innovations in art and music during the Enlightenment. Were they as important as the era's new social and economic ideas? Why or why not?

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Question 15

Compare the colonial empires of Britain and France in the Americas, highlighting similarities and differences in their administration.

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Question 16

"The Scientific Revolution was the most revolutionary of all revolutions." Discuss critically, using specific examples.

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Question 17

Why did Europe become the engine for rapid global change in the seventeenth and eighteenth century rather than China or some other non-Western society?

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Question 18

What caused the French Revolution to start when it did? Could its outbreak have been avoided, or postponed? Was the revolution inevitable? Why or why not?

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Question 19

What is "enlightened absolutism" and how "enlightened" was enlightened absolutism as it was manifested in eighteenth-century Europe? Cite the policies of specific rulers as examples to support your viewpoint.

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Question 20

Instructions: Identify the following term(s). 
Galileo Galilei

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Galileo Galilei...

Quiz 18: The West on the Eve of a New World Order

Instructions: Identify the following term(s). Kepler