In a Classic Study (Seligman & Maier, 1967), Dogs Learned

In a classic study (Seligman & Maier, 1967) , dogs learned that a certain tone predicted a shock from the floor. At first, all dogs were harnessed in place and could not move. However, half of the dogs could stop the shock by pressing a panel with their noses; the other half got the same number and duration of shocks, but could not stop them. Later, all dogs were freed from the harness, and could jump to another room to escape the shock when they heard the tone. Which of the following best describes the implications of this study for our understanding of psychological disorder?

A) Fears are learned quickly by associating neutral stimuli (such as a tone) with pain.
B) The experience of intense physical pain can cause a major depressive episode.
C) Like humans, dogs are capable of experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder.
D) Appraisals of low control contribute substantially to the symptoms of depression.