Question 1

Langer (1975) assigned participants a lottery number, or invited participants to choose a number themselves. Participants were then asked if they would sell their tickets back, and for what price. The results showed that:

Accepted Answer

Participants who chose their own numbers placed a higher value on their lottery ticket and demanded a higher price to sell it back. This suggests that people value things more highly when they have personal involvement or control over them. The other options are not supported by the findings.

Question 2

A state of having more confidence in one's judgment or control over a situation than is really justified refers to what concept?

Accepted Answer

The overconfidence barrier refers to the tendency for people to have more confidence in their own abilities or judgments than is objectively justified.

Question 3

An imagined outcome in which things turn out better than the real event is called a(n) ______________; whereas, an imagined outcome in which things turn out worse than the real event is called a ______________.

Accepted Answer

Upward counterfactual refers to imagining a better outcome, while downward counterfactual refers to imagining a worse outcome. This terminology is commonly used in psychology and decision-making research. Option A, C, and D do not accurately describe the concept of counterfactual thinking.

Question 4

Which of the following best represents an evolutionary explanation for the negativity bias?

Accepted Answer

The negativity bias can be explained through the evolutionary theory that humans have a predisposition to avoid danger and negative information would be more important for avoiding danger than positive information. This bias helps in alerting us to potential threats and helps us avoid harm.

Question 5

Which concept refers to the tendency to notice and remember negative information, which then influences the evaluation of people and situations?

Accepted Answer

The negativity bias refers to the tendency to give more importance to negative information and remember it more easily than positive information, which then influences our evaluation of people and situations. This bias plays a significant role in how we perceive the world around us and can impact our mood and behavior.

Question 6

Which of the following is true regarding counterfactual thinking?

Accepted Answer

Counterfactual thinking involves imagining alternative outcomes to past events or situations. "Wrong place at the wrong time" stories often elicit counterfactual thinking as people imagine what could have been done differently to avoid a negative outcome.

Question 7

According to your textbook, which of the following statements represents a potential benefit of counterfactual thinking?

Accepted Answer

According to the textbook, counterfactual thinking about an event can help individuals better prepare for a future event by considering alternative outcomes and potential ways to improve. A, B, and C do not represent potential benefits of counterfactual thinking.

Question 8

We are more likely to respond to negative stimuli and filter out positive stimuli when:

Accepted Answer

Negative stimuli tend to trigger our fight-or-flight response, making them more arousing and personally relevant. Uncertainty also increases the salience of negative stimuli as we try to resolve potential threats. Positive stimuli may be filtered out in these situations due to their lack of immediate relevance to our survival.

Question 9

Jane is in a very good mood. According to the mood congruence effect, what information from her day will Jane be more likely to remember?

Accepted Answer

The mood congruence effect suggests that we are more likely to remember information that is congruent or consistent with our current emotional state. Since Jane is in a very good mood, she is more likely to remember positive events from her day, such as finding the ten dollar bill on the ground. She is less likely to remember negative events, such as her teacher asking her to re-do an assignment or her roommate snapping at her. The time she got up in the morning is neutral and not particularly relevant to her current mood, so it is unlikely to have a strong influence on her memory.

Question 10

Last year Joseph was in a serious car accident. He often thinks to himself, "If only I hadn't been driving so fast, maybe the accident would never have happened." This example best illustrates the concept known as _____________.

Accepted Answer

Counterfactual thinking refers to the tendency to imagine alternative outcomes to past events, such as "If only I had taken a different route, the accident might not have happened." In this case, Joseph is imagining a different outcome if he had acted differently, which is a common form of counterfactual thinking.

Question 11

Medvec and Savitsky (1997) found that individuals on the borderline of a grade (e.g., 89 percent) reported:

Accepted Answer

Medvec and Savitsky (1997) found that individuals on the borderline of a grade were more upset because it is easier to imagine getting an A+ (i.e., 90 percent) than a lower grade. This is because the A+ represents a missed opportunity, whereas a lower grade may feel like a natural outcome. It is harder for individuals to cope with missed opportunities, which can lead to greater disappointment and upset.

Question 12

In a study done on counterfactual thinking, what did researchers find with respect to the satisfaction level of Olympic medalists?

Accepted Answer

In the study on counterfactual thinking, researchers found that bronze medalists were more satisfied than silver medalists. This is because bronze medalists tend to focus on the counterfactual "at least I won a medal" while silver medalists tend to focus on the counterfactual "if only I had won gold." Therefore, bronze medalists experience less regret and are more satisfied with their performance than silver medalists.

Question 13

Katherine believes she will earn a higher salary than her classmates once she's out of university and that she is less likely to incur any financial problems. Katherine is exhibiting:

Accepted Answer

Katherine is exhibiting the optimistic bias, which refers to the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of positive events happening and underestimate the likelihood of negative events happening. This bias can lead individuals to make risky or unrealistic decisions based on their unrealistic expectations.

Question 14

You had your annual job performance review and are disappointed to learn that your boss has given you a poor review. In order to feel better you think to yourself, "at least I did not get fired." This is an example of _____________.

Accepted Answer

This is an example of downward counterfactual thinking, which involves imagining a worse outcome that could have happened in a given situation.

Question 15

Which of the following statements is most accurate regarding the relationship between counterfactual thinking and mood?

Accepted Answer

The most accurate statement regarding the relationship between counterfactual thinking and mood is that if you compare a real life outcome with a less desirable imagined outcome, you will likely feel better. This is because counterfactual thinking allows us to evaluate our situations and imagine alternatives, and if the imagined outcome is worse than the reality, we can gain a sense of relief and gratitude. However, this does not necessarily mean that engaging in counterfactual thinking always leads to feeling better, as there are various factors that can influence the impact of counterfactual thinking on mood.

Question 16

The optimistic bias is often more evident in people who:

Accepted Answer

Optimistic bias is more evident in people who have high self-esteem, confidence, or defensiveness, as they tend to believe they are less likely to experience negative events compared to others.

Question 17

You believe that bad things are more likely to happen to other people but good things are more likely to happen to yourself. This is termed ______________.

Accepted Answer

The described belief is an example of optimistic bias, which is the tendency for individuals to believe that they are less likely to experience negative events and more likely to experience positive events compared to others.

Question 18

Research on the negativity bias suggests what about how we process negative information compared with positive information?

Accepted Answer

Research on the negativity bias suggests that we are more sensitive to negative information than positive information. This means that negative information tends to affect us more strongly and can be more memorable than positive information. This bias is thought to have evolved as a way of helping us avoid potential dangers and threats, which may have been more important for survival in the past.

Question 19

You are in a car accident. You and your passengers are unharmed, but the car is badly damaged and cannot be repaired. You are upset about the incident. Which of the following is likely to improve your mood?

Accepted Answer

Focusing on the positive outcome that no one was injured is likely to improve one's mood and help them see the situation in a more positive light. The other choices are negative and likely to worsen one's mood by emphasizing negative aspects and potentially causing guilt or embarrassment.

Question 20

When Madndel and Dhami (2005) asked prisoners to focus on counterfactuals to being caught for their current offense, the prisoners reported:

Accepted Answer

The answer of When Madndel and Dhami (2005) asked prisoners...

Quiz 3: Social Cognition