Question 1

Regression is especially problematic in which of the following situations?
A) When one group has an extremely low score at pretest
B) When one group has an extremely high score at pretest
C) When the experimental and comparison groups are equal at pretest
D) Both a and b
E) All of the situations above run the risk of regression threats to internal validity

Accepted Answer

Regression effects occur when groups selected for a study based on extreme scores on a pre-test variable will tend to have less extreme scores when post-tested, regardless of what happens during the intervention or non-intervention period. This means that groups with very high or low pre-test scores can regress back towards the mean, which can be a serious threat to the internal validity of a study. However, if the groups are equal at pretest, there is no extreme score to regress towards, which would reduce the risk of regression threats.

Question 2

Dr.LaGuardia is curious as to whether children in a daycare center will share more after watching an education video on sharing.Immediately before and after the video,he has several undergraduate research assistants code the sharing behavior of a group of 33 four-year-olds.Which of the following would you recommend to her to decrease the threat of instrumentation?
A) Establishing the reliability and validity of her coders at pretest
B) Establishing the reliability and validity of her coders at posttest
C) Using clear coding manuals
D) All of the above should be recommended
E) None of the above should be recommended

Accepted Answer

To decrease the threat of instrumentation, all of the above should be recommended. Establishing the reliability and validity of the coders at pretest and posttest will ensure that the data collected is accurate and unbiased. Using clear coding manuals will also ensure that the coders are properly trained and interpreting the behavior consistently. By implementing all of these measures, the researcher can increase the internal validity of the study and minimize the threat of instrumentation.

Question 3

A decrease in participants' scores on a measure from pretest to posttest could suggest which of the following threats to internal validity?
A) Regression
B) Maturation
C) Testing
D) Both a and c
E) All of the above

Accepted Answer

A decrease in scores on a measure from pretest to posttest could suggest either regression or testing as a threat to internal validity. Regression suggests that participants who initially scored extremely high or low on the measure tend to score closer to the mean on subsequent administrations. Testing suggests that participants may have become aware of the measure being used and, as a result, they may modify their behavior on subsequent administrations irrespective of any intervention being implemented. Therefore, decreasing scores may indicate both regression and testing; hence options (a) and (c) both represent viable threats to internal validity.

Question 4

Observer bias can threaten which of the following big validities?
A) Internal validity
B) External validity
C) Construct validity
D) Both a and c
E) Both a and b

Accepted Answer

Observer bias can threaten both internal validity (the extent to which the observed effect can be attributed to the independent variable and not confounding variables) and construct validity (the extent to which the operationalization of the variables actually measures the theoretical construct). It does not directly threaten external validity, which pertains to the generalizability of the results to other populations, settings, and time periods.

Question 5

Spontaneous remission in clinical studies is an example of which of the following threats to internal validity?
A) Regression
B) Attrition
C) Observer bias
D) Placebo effects
E) None of the above

Accepted Answer

The answer of Spontaneous remission in clinical studies is an...

Question 6

To be a history threat,the external event must occur:
A) Constantly during the experiment
B) At the beginning of the experiment
C) Systematically, affecting most members of the group
D) Intentionally, affecting most members of the group
E) Because of a participant's behavior

Accepted Answer

A history threat occurs when an external event systematically affects most members of the group, making it difficult to determine if any differences in the dependent variable are due to the treatment or the external event. The event does not have to occur constantly or at the beginning of the experiment, nor does it have to be intentional or caused by a participant's behavior.

Question 7

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1
In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam.
-Refer to Research Study 10.1 above to answer the following question. The study described above is an example of which of the following?
A) A one-group, pretest/posttest design
B) A null effect
C) A double-blind study
D) Observer bias
E) None of the above

Accepted Answer

The study described is a double-blind study, as the researcher and the students are unaware of which group they are in (meaning group or preparation group).

Question 8

Which of the following is true of instrumentation threats?
A) They are the same as testing threats.
B) They occur only when using mechanical instruments (e.g., blood pressure cuffs, scales).
C) They can be avoided with one-group, pretest/posttest designs.
D) They are only problematic in observational research.
E) None of the above are true.

Accepted Answer

Instrumentation threats refer to changes in measurement tools or procedures over the course of a study, which can impact the validity of the results. They are different from testing threats, which occur when repeated measurements or tests alter participants' behavior or performance. Instrumentation threats can occur with any type of measurement instrument, not just mechanical ones. The use of pretest and posttest designs can help control for some threats to internal validity, but instrumentation threats may still be present. Finally, instrumentation threats are not limited to observational research, but can also be a problem in experimental studies.

Question 9

The addition of a comparison group can address all of the following threats to internal validity EXCEPT:
A) History
B) Maturation
C) Regression
D) Attrition
E) A comparison group can address all of these threats to internal validity

Accepted Answer

A comparison group cannot address the threat of attrition, which refers to the loss of participants from one group in a study. This can occur for various reasons (e.g. dropping out of a treatment program, moving away), and can affect the internal validity of a study if the attrition is not random or balanced across groups. However, a comparison group can address the other threats to internal validity listed: history (external events that occur during a study), maturation (natural changes that occur over time), and regression (when extreme scores on a measure tend to move closer to the mean on subsequent measurements).

Question 10

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1
In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam.
-Refer to Research Study 10.1 above to answer the following question. Imagine that in Dr.Schulenberg's study,he notes that all of the students do extremely well on the midterm exam.When he looks at the results of the final exam,he notices that all the students' exam scores went down.Given this information,which of the following threats might be present in his study?
A) Regression
B) Attrition
C) Maturation
D) Observer bias
E) Placebo effect

Accepted Answer

The fact that all students did extremely well on the midterm exam may suggest they experienced a regression toward the mean. This means that extreme scores on a first testing occasion (midterm exam) are likely to be less extreme on a second testing occasion (final exam) due to chance factors such as measurement error or temporary mood/hormonal changes. If the students in the meaning group had particularly high scores on the midterm, they may have experienced a particularly strong regression effect if they did not have sufficient time to learn the material at a deeper level than students in the preparation group. This could explain why their scores went down on the final exam.

Question 11

Dr.Whetstone is curious about how self-esteem changes as a result of a new counseling program.She is concerned about testing threats in her study.Which of the following would you NOT recommend to her as a way to address this type of threat?
A) Collecting pretest data twice
B) Conducting a posttest-only study
C) Using a different measure of self-esteem at pretest than at posttest
D) Using a comparison group
E) All of the above can be used to address testing threats

Accepted Answer

The answer of Dr.Whetstone is curious about how self-esteem changes...

Question 12

Which of the following cannot be found in a one-group,pretest/posttest design?
A) A random sample
B) A valid measure
C) A comparison group
D) A manipulation
E) None of the above can be found in this type of design

Accepted Answer

A one-group, pretest/posttest design involves only one group of participants, so there is no comparison group. A valid measure and a manipulation can be present in this design, and while a random sample may be desirable, it is not always possible or practical in this type of design.

Question 13

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1
In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam.
-Refer to Research Study 10.1 above to answer the following question. Which of the following aspects of Dr.Schulenberg's study allows him to prevent observer bias?
A) Keeping his students unaware of which type of essay they are writing
B) Having his teaching assistant assign students randomly to the two groups
C) Grading the exams himself (a Ph.D.) instead of having his teaching assistant (a college senior) do it
D) Having the person grading the exams unaware of each student's writing group
E) Using the grades from the midterm exam rather than the final exam

Accepted Answer

Having the person grading the exams unaware of each student's writing group allows Dr. Schulenberg to prevent observer bias. This means that the grader's knowledge of which group a student belongs to will not influence how they grade the exam, ensuring that the results are more accurate and reliable. Keeping the students unaware of which type of essay they are writing and having the teaching assistant randomly assign students to the two groups also helps to prevent bias in the study design, but these aspects do not directly address observer bias in the grading process. Grading the exams himself and using the grades from the midterm exam are not relevant to preventing observer bias.

Question 14

When interrogating experiments,on which of the big validities should a person focus?
A) Internal validity
B) External validity
C) Construct validity
D) Statistical validity
E) No one validity is more important than another when interrogating experiments

Accepted Answer

Internal validity is the most important validity to focus on when interrogating experiments because it addresses whether the study is measuring what it claims to be measuring and if results are impacted by extraneous variables or confounds. Without strong internal validity, the results of the experiment may not be reliable.

Question 15

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1
In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam.
-Refer to Research Study 10.1 above to answer the following question. Dr.Schulenberg likely designed his study so that neither he nor his students knew which group they were in to address which of the following?
A) Placebo effects
B) Attrition
C) Demand characteristics
D) Maturation
E) All of the above

Accepted Answer

Dr. Schulenberg likely designed his study so that neither he nor his students knew which group they were in to address demand characteristics, which are potential biases that can occur when participants modify their behavior or responses based on what they perceive the experimenter wants or expects. By keeping both himself and the students blind to the group assignments, Dr. Schulenberg minimizes the risk of demand characteristics affecting his results. The other options listed are not relevant to this particular design choice.

Question 16

Which of the following is true of testing effects?
A) It is an example of an order effect.
B) It can lead to increased/higher scores.
C) It can lead to decreased/lower scores.
D) It can sensitize people to being tested.
E) All of the above are true of testing effects.

Accepted Answer

Testing effects can lead to both increased and decreased scores, can be considered an order effect, and can make individuals more aware or sensitive to the testing process.

Question 17

Which of the following is NOT a method researchers used to identify or correct for attrition?
A) Drop the original/pretest scores of participants who left the study
B) Not allow participants to leave a study once it has started
C) Determine whether those who dropped out of the study had a different pattern of scores than those who stayed in the study
D) Neither a nor b is used
E) Neither a nor c is used

Accepted Answer

Not allowing participants to leave a study once it has started is not an ethical or feasible option. Options A and C are commonly used methods to address attrition in research studies.

Question 18

Which of the following studies would NOT have a possible threat of observer bias?
A) A study looking at the relationship between the frequency of eating fruits and vegetables and general physical fitness
B) A study looking at the relationship between college GPA and SAT scores
C) A study looking at the number of hours spent listening to music and singing ability
D) A study looking at the rate of text messaging in a day and writing/English composition skill
E) All of the above studies run the risk of observer bias

Accepted Answer

Observer bias occurs when the observer's expectations influence the interpretation of the data. In option B, the variables being studied (college GPA and SAT scores) are objective measures, so observer bias is less likely to occur compared to the other options, which involve subjective assessments, making them more susceptible to observer bias.

Question 19

Which of the following threats to internal validity can occur in any study?
A) Observer bias
B) Demand characteristics
C) Placebo effects
D) Both a and b
E) All of the above

Accepted Answer

All of the listed threats—observer bias, demand characteristics, and placebo effects—can occur in any study, affecting its internal validity.

Question 20

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1
In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam.
-Refer to Research Study 10.1 above to answer the following question. Imagine that in Dr.Schulenberg's study,he notes that all of the students do extremely well on the midterm exam.When he looks at the results of the final exam,he notices that all the students' exam scores went down.Which of the following pattern of results would suggest that there is a threat to internal validity?
A) The final exam scores were lower in the preparation group than the meaning group.
B) The final exam scores were equally low in both groups.
C) The final exam scores were lower than those of students in his fall semester class.
D) The final exam scores were lower than the final exam scores of students of his colleague, Dr. Fao.
E) None of the above would suggest a threat to internal validity.

Accepted Answer

If the final exam scores were equally low in both the meaning group and the preparation group, it would suggest a threat to internal validity because it would mean that the writing assignment did not have any effect on academic performance. This could be due to factors outside of the study such as the difficulty of the final exam or extraneous variables that were not controlled for. In contrast, if one group did better than the other, it would provide support for the idea that the writing assignment had an effect on academic performance. Therefore, the lack of difference between the groups would indicate a weaker study design. Choices A, C, D, and E do not necessarily suggest a threat to internal validity.

Quiz 10: More on Experiments: Confounding and Obscuring Variables

Regression is especially problematic in which of the following situations?

A decrease in participants' scores on a measure from pretest to posttest could suggest which of the following threats to internal validity?

Observer bias can threaten which of the following big validities?

Spontaneous remission in clinical studies is an example of which of the following threats to internal validity?

To be a history threat,the external event must occur:

Which of the following is true of instrumentation threats?

The addition of a comparison group can address all of the following threats to internal validity EXCEPT:

Dr.Whetstone is curious about how self-esteem changes as a result of a new counseling program.She is concerned about testing threats in her study.Which of the following would you NOT recommend to her as a way to address this type of threat?

Which of the following cannot be found in a one-group,pretest/posttest design?

When interrogating experiments,on which of the big validities should a person focus?

Which of the following is true of testing effects?

Which of the following is NOT a method researchers used to identify or correct for attrition?

Which of the following studies would NOT have a possible threat of observer bias?

Which of the following threats to internal validity can occur in any study?