Question 1

Operant conditioning is also sometimes referred to as ____.
A) instrumental learning
B) effort justification
C) vicarious learning
D) learning by example

Accepted Answer

Operant conditioning is often called instrumental learning because it involves learning the association between a behavior and its consequences (instrumental means related to an instrument or tool, which in this case is the behavior). Effort justification, vicarious learning, and learning by example are other types of learning processes, but they are not synonymous with operant conditioning.

Question 2

Beth and Jean are talking about welfare reform in America. Beth is very passionate about the issue, and makes strong statements about her views. Jean later e-mails Beth an article which contains some information that is consistent with Beth's views, as well as some information that is inconsistent with Beth's views. Beth chooses to believe the consistent information but discounts the inconsistent information. As a matter of fact, after reading the article and thinking about the data it contained-even though these data were mixed-Beth actually feels even more passionate and more strongly about her position. This is an example of ____.
A) anchoring and adjustment
B) informational influence
C) attitude polarization
D) cognitive coping

Accepted Answer

This is an example of attitude polarization, where exposure to mixed information leads to a strengthening of prior attitudes, rather than a change in attitudes. Beth's selective processing of information that confirms her existing views is a cognitive bias that contributes to attitude polarization.

Question 3

Henry's mother always praises him when he practices the piano and denies him dessert when he doesn't. Henry's mother is apparently employing techniques based on ____ in order to encourage her son to practice more.
A) operant conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) social learning
D) attitude polarization

Accepted Answer

Henry's mother is using positive reinforcement (praise) to increase the likelihood of him practicing piano, and negative punishment (denying dessert) to decrease the likelihood of him not practicing. This is an example of operant conditioning, where behavior is shaped by consequences. Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response to create a learned response (like Pavlov's dogs salivating at the sound of a bell). Social learning involves observing and imitating others' behaviors, and attitude polarization is the phenomenon of becoming more extreme in one's beliefs after being exposed to information that confirms those beliefs.

Question 4

Which of the following is the best example of operant conditioning?
A) You notice that many of your classmates are comfortable speaking with professors after class. Even though you are usually shy, you therefore decide that you will try to speak with professors after class too.
B) Every time you wear the poncho you purchased in Mexico, you think fondly about the time that you spent there.
C) You ask for an extension on a paper that is due for class, your teacher says yes, and you still end up with a really good grade. This leads you to ask other teachers for extensions as well.
D) After going to the same dentist for many years, you develop a fondness for your dentist and for the other people who work in her office.

Accepted Answer

Choice C is the best example of operant conditioning because it involves a behavior (asking for an extension) that is reinforced by a positive outcome (getting a good grade). The positive outcome leads to an increased likelihood of the behavior being repeated in the future. This is a classic example of positive reinforcement, one of the key concepts of operant conditioning. The other choices do not involve behaviors being reinforced or punished in this way.

Question 5

Research has demonstrated that people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing those behaviors, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing those behaviors. This type of learning is known as ____.
A) instrumental learning
B) social learning
C) classical conditioning
D) operant conditioning

Accepted Answer

Social learning involves observing and imitating the behavior of others, and research has demonstrated that the likelihood of imitation is influenced by the presence of rewards or punishments for those behaviors. Instrumental learning, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning all involve associative learning based on the consequences of behavior, but do not specifically involve the observation and imitation of others.

Question 6

Paul is trying to train his puppy, Cupcake. He yells "Bad dog!" whenever Cupcake fails to do what he wants. Paul seems to be using ____.
A) operant conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) social learning
D) attitude polarization

Accepted Answer

Paul is using operant conditioning, specifically punishment, to decrease the occurrence of the behavior he deems "bad" in his puppy.

Question 7

Attitude polarization refers to the finding that ____.
A) when people reflect on a given attitude, their position on that attitude tends to become more extreme
B) when people reflect on a given attitude, they tend to become more open-minded with respect to that attitude
C) people are more likely to spend time reflecting on issues that they have extreme views about than issues that they have moderate views about
D) people are more likely to spend time reflecting on issues that they have moderate views about than issues that they have extreme views about

Accepted Answer

Attitude polarization refers to the tendency for people to become more extreme in their attitudes and beliefs when reflecting on them, rather than becoming more open-minded. This phenomenon has been well documented in social psychology research.

Question 8

Hazing rituals make use of the idea of ____.
A) effort justification
B) cognitive coping
C) social learning
D) dual attitudes

Accepted Answer

Hazing rituals often require extreme effort, humiliation, and obedience to the group, leading to an experience of cognitive dissonance. As a result, individuals tend to justify their actions and beliefs by emphasizing the importance of the group and their membership in it, even if it means enduring painful or traumatic experiences. This phenomenon is known as effort justification. Hazing rituals leverage this concept to encourage group loyalty and compliance.

Question 9

Which of the following is the best example of social learning?
A) You notice that many of your classmates are comfortable speaking with professors after class. Even though you are usually shy, you therefore decide that you will try to speak with professors after class too.
B) Every time you wear the poncho you purchased in Mexico, you think fondly about the time that you spent there.
C) You ask for an extension on a paper that is due for class, your teacher says yes, and you still end up with a really good grade. This leads you to ask other teachers for extensions as well.
D) After going to the same dentist for many years, you develop a fondness for your dentist and for the other people who work in her office.

Accepted Answer

Social learning involves observing and then imitating the behavior of others. In this example, the individual observes their classmates speaking with professors and decides to try it themselves, which is a clear example of social learning. The other options do not involve the observation and imitation of others' behavior.

Question 10

Social learning is also sometimes referred to as observational learning or ____.
A) instrumental learning
B) justified learning
C) vicarious conditioning
D) conditional learning

Accepted Answer

Social learning is also referred to as observational learning because it involves acquiring new behaviors or information by observing and imitating others. Vicarious conditioning is another term used for social learning, which emphasizes the role of reinforcement in shaping behavior through observing the consequences of others' actions. Instrumental learning, justified learning, and conditional learning are not synonyms for social learning.

Question 11

Research suggests that the more people think about their attitudes, the stronger their attitudes tend to become. For example, the more a Lakers fan thinks about how much she likes the Lakers, the more of a die-hard fan she is likely to become. This effect is called ____.
A) attitude polarization
B) the sentiment effect
C) the mere exposure effect
D) belief perseverance

Accepted Answer

Attitude polarization refers to the phenomenon where the more people think about their attitudes, the more extreme and one-sided they become. This effect has been demonstrated in various contexts, such as politics, religion, and consumer preferences. The Lakers fan in the example is likely to become more devoted to the team and less open to opposing views or arguments.

Question 12

Suppose that Dylan has a new girlfriend whom he really likes. He programs his cell phone so that every time his new girlfriend calls, his phone plays the new Justin Timberlake single. After he has had his phone programmed this way for a little while, he notices that he feels happy whenever he hears the Justin Timberlake song. This most clearly illustrates ____.
A) classical conditioning
B) operant conditioning
C) the mere exposure effect
D) social learning

Accepted Answer

This scenario is an example of classical conditioning, in which an initially neutral stimulus (Dylan's girlfriend's phone call) becomes associated with a naturally pleasant stimulus (the Justin Timberlake song) and thus elicits a positive emotional response in Dylan.

Question 13

Early research on classical conditioning was performed with dogs. In certain variations of this research, experimenters repeatedly presented dogs with meat powder just after ringing a bell. The dogs (who would naturally salivate after being exposed to meat powder) learned to associate the bell with the meat powder, and began to salivate as soon as they heard the bell. In this research, the dogs' salivation was ____.
A) a conditioned response
B) an unconditioned response
C) a neutral stimulus
D) both an unconditioned response and a conditioned response

Accepted Answer

The dogs' salivation is both an unconditioned response (naturally occurring in response to the meat powder) and a conditioned response (learned in response to the bell after conditioning).

Question 14

According to research studies, people who hold strong attitudes toward an issue are least likely to do which of the following?
A) Show attitude polarization if they think about the issue.
B) Evaluate relevant information in a biased manner.
C) Seek out relevant information from outgroup members.
D) Seek out information that supports their initial view.

Accepted Answer

People with strong attitudes are likely to avoid seeking out information that contradicts their beliefs, which is known as confirmation bias. This makes them less likely to seek out information from outgroup members who may have differing views. Therefore, option C is correct. Options A and B are incorrect because attitude polarization and biased evaluation of information are more likely to occur in people with strong attitudes. Option D is incorrect because people with strong attitudes are more likely to seek out information that confirms their beliefs.

Question 15

According to the text, what might best explain the development of prejudice against social groups that are frequently associated with negative information in the media, such as Muslims being associated with terrorism?
A) operant conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) vicarious learning
D) observational learning

Accepted Answer

Classical conditioning can explain the development of prejudice as it involves associating a neutral stimulus (a social group) with a negative stimulus (negative media information), leading to a conditioned response (prejudice).

Question 16

Kevin has just moved to a new neighborhood. In his old neighborhood, everyone wore Vans and board shorts, but he notices that the kids on his new block are wearing Nikes and basketball shorts. He also notices that they tease people who are not dressed this way. Kevin immediately asks his mom to take him to the store to buy new clothes. What has taken place here?
A) attitude polarization
B) the mere exposure effect
C) observational learning
D) operant conditioning

Accepted Answer

Kevin has observed the behavior of his new peers and learned from it, leading him to change his own behavior and dress in a way that will fit in with the group. This is an example of observational learning, where an individual learns by observing and imitating the behavior of others.

Question 17

According to the principles of ____ people are relatively likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and relatively unlikely to repeat behaviors that have been punished.
A) classical conditioning
B) operant conditioning
C) vicarious learning
D) effort justification

Accepted Answer

The principle described in the question is one of the basic principles of operant conditioning, which is the learning process through which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow them. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that involves associating a neutral stimulus with a natural response, and is not directly related to the principle described in the question. Vicarious learning, also known as observational learning, involves learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences that follow their behavior, but does not directly address the question of rewarding and punishing behaviors. Effort justification refers to the tendency to value something more when we have put effort into it, and is not related to the principle described in the question.

Question 18

Early research on classical conditioning was performed with dogs. In certain variations of this research, experimenters repeatedly presented dogs with meat powder just after ringing a bell. The dogs (who would naturally salivate after being exposed to meat powder) learned to associate the bell with the meat powder, and began to salivate as soon as they heard the bell. In this research, the bell served as a(n) ____.
A) unconditioned stimulus that became a conditioned stimulus
B) conditioned stimulus that became an unconditioned stimulus
C) neutral stimulus that became a conditioned stimulus
D) unconditioned stimulus that became a neutral stimulus

Accepted Answer

The bell was originally a neutral stimulus (meaning it did not elicit a response) but became a conditioned stimulus once it was repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (meat powder) and elicited a response (salivation) on its own.

Question 19

One technique that advertisers often use to influence consumers is celebrity endorsement. The logic works like this: If people like Catherine Zeta-Jones and repeatedly see T-Mobile products together with Catherine Zeta-Jones, then people will learn to associate T-Mobile with her and will in turn like T-Mobile more. That is, celebrity endorsement is expected to lead to ____.
A) operant conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) vicarious learning
D) observational learning

Accepted Answer

Celebrity endorsement is an example of classical conditioning, where a stimulus (the celebrity) that initially has no inherent value becomes associated with a product, leading to the product being perceived more positively by consumers.

Question 20

Suppose that Dylan has a new girlfriend whom he really likes. He programs his cell phone so that every time his new girlfriend calls, his phone plays the new Justin Timberlake single. After he has had his phone programmed this way for a little while, he notices that he feels happy whenever he hears the Justin Timberlake song. What is the best term for the role of the Justin Timberlake song?
A) cognitive inference
B) behavioral reward
C) generalization
D) conditioned stimulus

Accepted Answer

The Justin Timberlake song is the conditioned stimulus because it is paired with the girlfriend's call (which serves as the unconditioned stimulus) to create a conditioned response (feeling happy).

Quiz 7: Attitudes, Beliefs and Consistency

Operant conditioning is also sometimes referred to as ____.

Henry's mother always praises him when he practices the piano and denies him dessert when he doesn't. Henry's mother is apparently employing techniques based on ____ in order to encourage her son to practice more.

Which of the following is the best example of operant conditioning?

Research has demonstrated that people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing those behaviors, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing those behaviors. This type of learning is known as ____.

Paul is trying to train his puppy, Cupcake. He yells "Bad dog!" whenever Cupcake fails to do what he wants. Paul seems to be using ____.

Attitude polarization refers to the finding that ____.

Hazing rituals make use of the idea of ____.

Which of the following is the best example of social learning?

Social learning is also sometimes referred to as observational learning or ____.

Research suggests that the more people think about their attitudes, the stronger their attitudes tend to become. For example, the more a Lakers fan thinks about how much she likes the Lakers, the more of a die-hard fan she is likely to become. This effect is called ____.

According to research studies, people who hold strong attitudes toward an issue are least likely to do which of the following?

According to the text, what might best explain the development of prejudice against social groups that are frequently associated with negative information in the media, such as Muslims being associated with terrorism?

According to the principles of ____ people are relatively likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and relatively unlikely to repeat behaviors that have been punished.