Question 1

Systematically reinforcing successive approximations to a desired act defines:

Accepted Answer

Systematically reinforcing successive approximations to a desired act is the definition of shaping. The other options are not related to this process. Counterconditioning involves changing an individual's response to a stimulus by pairing it with a different positive or negative stimulus. Stimulus generalization is the extension of a learned response to similar stimuli. Systematic desensitization involves gradually exposing an individual to a feared stimulus while in a relaxed state in order to decrease anxiety.

Question 2

Many individuals who grew up during the Great Depression were so devastated by the collapse of the economy that they became distrustful of depositing large sums of money in banks. The Great Depression would best be considered a:

Accepted Answer

Normative, history-graded influences refer to the historical events that affect large numbers of individuals at the same time (e.g., wars, depressions, epidemics). The Great Depression is one such example.

Question 3

Rex decides that the only way he will ever be able to work hard enough to pass his chemistry class is to give himself a reward after every chapter he reads and every lab report he turns in on time. His approach to studying is best thought of as an example of:

Accepted Answer

Behavior modification is a method that uses conditioning procedures-such as reinforcement, reward, and shaping-to change behavior.

Question 4

Operant conditioning is most closely associated with which of the following?

Accepted Answer

Operant conditioning involves the application or removal of rewards (called reinforcements) and punishments to encourage or discourage us from acting in certain ways. Both reinforcements and punishments constitute consequences that follow a particular behavior.

Question 5

A consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will be repeated is a technical definition of the term:

Accepted Answer

As noted in the textbook, punishments decrease the probability that a behavior will be repeated.

Question 6

If different members of the family experience quite different environments, this would be reflected in:

Accepted Answer

Nonshared environment refers to those experiences and relationships that persons do not share.

Question 7

At age 65, Reggie retired from high school teaching. This change most likely reflects a:

Accepted Answer

Normative, age-graded influences refer to the biological and social changes that normally happen at predictable ages (e.g., puberty, menopause, entering school). Most people retire around age 65.

Question 8

Whitney believes that she is a capable, confident person who can usually succeed in whatever she tries to do. Psychologists would be most likely to conclude that she has:

Accepted Answer

Self-efficacy refers to what a person believes he or she is capable of doing in a given situation.
Environment in a Broader Context: Family and Culture

Question 9

Which of the following is an example of a normative history-graded influence on development?

Accepted Answer

Normative history-graded influences are events that affect a cohort of people who are born around the same time and in the same place. Economic depression is an example of this type of influence since it affects a group of people who are living during the same time period and in the same economic conditions. Retirement, career change, and unemployment are examples of normative age-graded influences since they are typically associated with specific age ranges rather than historical events.

Question 10

Patty doesn't want to hang around with people from the other side of town because she says they are "weird." Patty's behavior best reflects the concept involved in:

Accepted Answer

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to assume that our own beliefs, perceptions, customs, and values are correct or normal and that those of others are inferior or abnormal.

Question 11

Suppose Sandra has difficulty in concentrating while doing her homework. She decides to reward herself for reading 5 minutes without letting her mind wander. After a week of this, she decides to reward herself only when she reads for 10 minutes without distraction. Finally, she is able to concentrate for 15 minutes at a time without distraction. Sandra's ability to improve her study behavior is best considered an example of:

Accepted Answer

Shaping involves systematically reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior. In this case, Sandra reinforces her successive approximations (studying for 5 minutes) of the desired behavior (studying for 15 minutes without distraction).

Question 12

Learning through the method of "successive approximation" is at the heart of the concept called:

Accepted Answer

Successive approximation involves shaping, which is the process of reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior. This method is often used in operant conditioning to train animals or humans to perform complex behaviors. Choice A, self-efficacy, involves a person's belief in their own ability to succeed and is not directly related to the concept of successive approximation. Choice B, classical conditioning, involves the pairing of two stimuli to elicit a response, which is not the same as the process of shaping through successive approximation. Choice C, partial schedules of reinforcement, refers to reinforcing behaviors on a partial or intermittent schedule, which may be used in conjunction with shaping, but is not the same process.

Question 13

Operant conditioning is especially likely to be involved in the development of:

Accepted Answer

Operant conditioning involves the reinforcement and/or punishment of behavior through rewards and consequences. This process can lead to the development of habits, such as consistently engaging in a behavior that has previously been reinforced. Phobias may also involve operant conditioning, but they are typically developed through classical conditioning. Excessive salivation and habituation may also involve conditioning but not necessarily operant conditioning.

Question 14

Which of the following is the best example of a partial schedule of reinforcement?

Accepted Answer

In a partial schedule of reinforcement, reinforcements occur only occasionally, not every time a behavior occurs.

Question 15

The unique world experienced by each individual is called that person's:

Accepted Answer

Developmental niche refers to the unique combination of physical and social contexts in which an individual is raised, including factors such as culture, family dynamics, and community resources. Personal space refers to physical distance preferred by an individual, family system is a broader term referring to the interrelationships among family members, and normative space refers to the cultural or societal expectations for behavior.

Question 16

The tendency to assume that one's own cultural beliefs are normal and those of others are abnormal is referred to as:

Accepted Answer

Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to view one's own culture as superior and to judge other cultures based on the standards and values of one's own culture. This can lead to a lack of understanding or appreciation for other cultures and can contribute to cultural conflict or misunderstanding. Cohesion refers to the degree of unity within a group, socialization refers to the process of learning the norms and values of one's culture, and indoctrination refers to the process of teaching someone to accept a particular set of beliefs without questioning them.

Question 17

For as long as Brian can remember, he has been fearful of being in high places. Just the idea of climbing stairs or riding in an elevator causes him to be overcome with uncontrollable fear. Brian likely suffers from:

Accepted Answer

As noted in the textbook, unreasonable fears of objects or situations are called phobias.

Question 18

After Bill's parents' divorce, he and his mother were forced to move into an apartment and he had to switch schools. The losses Bill experienced following the divorce marked a turning point in his life, because from then on, he did poorly in school. His parents' divorce would be considered a:

Accepted Answer

Nonnormative influences refer to the individual environmental factors that do not occur at any predictable time in a person's life (e.g., divorce, unemployment, career changes). Experiencing one's parents' divorce is not an event that can be predicted to occur at a predictable time in a person's life, if at all.

Question 19

Little Timmy says, "Boys are cool and girls are stupid." Timmy's statement reflects the heart of what is meant by the term:

Accepted Answer