Question 1

Discuss the two lines of research examining infants' ability to reason about the characteristics of invisible objects. Describe these studies, including the methodology and the conclusions.

Accepted Answer

The two lines of research examining infants' ability to reason about the characteristics of invisible objects are the violation of expectation method and the anticipatory looking method.

The violation of expectation method involves presenting infants with a scenario where an object disappears behind a screen and then reappears in a different location. Researchers measure the infants' looking time to determine if they expect the object to reappear in the new location or if they are surprised by its location. This method has been used to study infants' understanding of object permanence, the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.

One study using the violation of expectation method found that infants as young as 4 months old showed surprise when an object reappeared in a location that was physically impossible for it to have moved to, indicating that they have some understanding of object permanence at a very young age (Baillargeon, 1987).

The anticipatory looking method involves presenting infants with a scenario where an object is hidden behind a screen and then a second screen is lifted to reveal the object's location. Researchers measure the infants' eye movements to determine if they anticipate the object's location before it is revealed. This method has been used to study infants' understanding of invisible displacement, the concept that objects can move without being seen.

One study using the anticipatory looking method found that 10-month-old infants were able to anticipate the location of an object that had been invisibly displaced, indicating that they have some understanding of invisible displacement at a relatively young age (Kellman & Spelke, 1983).

In conclusion, both lines of research have provided evidence that infants have some ability to reason about the characteristics of invisible objects at a much younger age than previously thought. These studies have used innovative methodologies to shed light on the cognitive abilities of infants and have important implications for our understanding of early cognitive development.

Question 2

Describe how experience is related to infants' judgments of their own motor abilities. Provide two detailed examples.

Accepted Answer

Infants' judgments of their own motor abilities are closely related to their experiences in exploring and interacting with their environment. As they gain more experience and practice with different motor skills, they develop a better understanding of their own abilities and limitations.

One example of this relationship can be seen in the development of crawling. Infants who have had more opportunities to practice crawling, such as through tummy time and supervised exploration, are more likely to have a positive judgment of their crawling abilities. They may feel more confident and capable in their movements compared to infants who have had limited opportunities to practice crawling.

Another example is in the development of reaching and grasping skills. Infants who have been exposed to a variety of toys and objects to reach for and grasp are more likely to have a better judgment of their own abilities in this area. They may be more adept at judging the distance and effort required to reach for objects, and may feel more confident in their ability to successfully grasp and manipulate items.

Overall, infants' judgments of their own motor abilities are shaped by their experiences and opportunities to practice and explore different movements. As they gain more experience and confidence in their motor skills, their judgments of their abilities become more accurate and positive.

Question 3

Baby Ethan is sitting outdoors in his stroller while his parents are cooking hamburgers. Provide three examples of the sensations that Ethan is experiencing and three examples of his perceptions.

Accepted Answer

Baby Ethan, sitting outdoors in his stroller, is likely experiencing a variety of sensations. Sensations are the raw data that are picked up by our sensory organs from the environment. Here are three examples of sensations that Ethan might be experiencing:

1. **Olfactory Sensation (Smell):** Ethan can smell the aroma of hamburgers cooking on the grill. This sensation is picked up by the olfactory receptors in his nose, which detect the chemical compounds released from the cooking meat.

2. **Auditory Sensation (Hearing):** He can hear the sizzle of the hamburgers on the grill, the chatter of his parents, and perhaps the ambient sounds of nature or the city around him. These auditory sensations are picked up by the tiny hairs in his inner ear that vibrate in response to sound waves.

3. **Visual Sensation (Sight):** Ethan sees the colors and movements around him. He might see the green of the trees, the blue of the sky, or the movement of leaves in the breeze. These visual sensations are captured by the rods and cones in his retinas, which convert light into neural signals.

Perceptions, on the other hand, are the brain's interpretations of these sensory inputs. Here are three examples of perceptions that Ethan might have:

1. **Recognition of Familiarity:** Ethan may perceive the smell of the hamburgers as familiar and comforting if he has experienced family barbecues before. This perception involves his brain interpreting the olfactory sensation and associating it with past memories.

2. **Emotional Response:** The sounds he hears, like his parents' voices, might elicit a perception of safety and happiness. His brain interprets these sounds and associates them with the presence of his caregivers, which can be comforting.

3. **Interest or Curiosity:** The sight of leaves fluttering or birds flying might catch Ethan's attention, leading to a perception of curiosity or interest. His brain processes the visual stimuli and may prompt him to reach out or follow the movement with his eyes, indicating an engagement with his environment.

In summary, while sensations are the basic building blocks of our experiences, perceptions are the meaningful interpretations that our brains construct from these blocks, influenced by our past experiences, emotions, and cognitive processes.

Question 4

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the preferential-looking paradigm? How about the habituation paradigm? Give an example of a research question that would be best examined with a preferential-looking paradigm and an example of a research question that would be best examined with a habituation paradigm.

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Question 5

Provide a detailed explanation of how infants' motor development affects their development in other domains. Provide at least two examples to support your explanation.

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Question 6

Discuss three cues used for depth perception. For each type of cue, provide a definition, an example, and the age at which it develops.

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Question 7

Describe the rationale behind three paradigms: (a) preferential-looking, (b) violation-of-expectancy, and (c) habituation. Give an example of each one.

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Question 8

Describe how three concepts relate to the notion that children are active participants in their own development: preferential looking, rational learning, and self-locomotion. Provide examples to support the descriptions.

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Question 9

Discuss two ways in which the development of perception is continuous and two ways in which it is discontinuous. Provide at least one example of continuous development and one example of discontinuous development in this domain.

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Question 10

What do you think is the purpose of habituation from an evolutionary perspective? What about preferential looking? Use examples to support your discussion.

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Question 11

How can a developmental psychologist test an infant's ability to mentally represent objects? Give three examples of tasks that could be used and discuss what it would mean if the infant could or could not do the tasks.

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Question 12

The series of studies conducted using the visual cliff has provided useful information about the association between experience and judgment. Describe these studies, including the general methodology and the conclusions.

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Question 13

Describe the dynamic-systems point of view. Discuss how this approach might influence a researcher's thinking about the development of crawling.

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Question 14

Describe three limitations on very young infants' visual experience of the world. In other words, what are three ways in which infants younger than 2 months old see the world differently than do adults?

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Question 15

Describe three ways in which 5-month-old infants see the world similarly to the way adults see the world and three ways in which 5-month-old infants see the world differently from adults. Give an example of each similarity and difference.

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Question 16

Provide a detailed description of how researchers have examined 4-month-old infants' auditory-visual intermodal perception and discuss the results of at least two of these experiments.

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Question 17

What is perceptual narrowing? Provide one example of perceptual narrowing and explain its benefit.

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Question 18

Are perceptual skills innate, or is experience necessary? Describe two aspects of perception that indicate the innate nature of perceptual skills and describe two aspects of perception that clearly indicate that learning is necessary.

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Question 19

A month-old infant and her 8-month-old cousin are sitting side-by-side watching their grandparents do laundry. Discuss five differences in the ways these two babies perceive the objects and events they are viewing.

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Question 20

Describe what impact infants' ability to reach, sit upright, and crawl has on their learning about the world. Discuss how the development of these motor skills makes infants more active participants in their own development of perception and understanding of objects.

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Quiz 5: Seeing, Thinking, and Doing in Infancy