Passage
The highly addictive nature of cigarettes can be partly explained by how nicotine, the primary addictive ingredient, is administered. The fastest route of administration for most drugs is through inhalation; cigarette smoking results in the transmission of nicotine to the brain in about 15 seconds. In the brain, nicotine activates the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which stimulate the brain's reward pathway and produce mild feelings of euphoria. Those who quit smoking often relapse due to stress, weight gain, and withdrawal symptoms such as cravings and irritability. Of those who attempt to quit without formal treatment, only 3%-5% remain abstinent after a year.Research suggests that mindfulness meditation-based programs can be an effective strategy to quit smoking. Mindfulness is an aspect of meditation that involves cultivating a nonjudgmental awareness of the thoughts, emotions, and sensations arising in the present moment.For one study, researchers randomly assigned 88 smokers to either Mindfulness Training (MT) or the Freedom From Smoking (FFS) intervention developed by the American Lung Association. Both groups participated in 90-minute group training sessions twice a week for four weeks. The FFS intervention educated participants on the negative health consequences of smoking, coping strategies for cravings, and the development of healthy lifestyle habits. The MT intervention taught mindfulness meditation techniques as a way of gaining awareness and acceptance of the cognitive, emotional, and physical components of cravings. The number of cigarettes smoked per day and self-reported abstinence, as verified by exhaled carbon monoxide, were measured at the end of treatment and at a 17-week follow-up for participants in each group (Figure 1) .
Figure 1 Percentage of participants in each group abstinent at the end of treatment and at 17-week follow-up (* indicates p < 0.05)
-Smoking behavior is:

Question

Passage
The highly addictive nature of cigarettes can be partly explained by how nicotine, the primary addictive ingredient, is administered. The fastest route of administration for most drugs is through inhalation; cigarette smoking results in the transmission of nicotine to the brain in about 15 seconds. In the brain, nicotine activates the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which stimulate the brain's reward pathway and produce mild feelings of euphoria. Those who quit smoking often relapse due to stress, weight gain, and withdrawal symptoms such as cravings and irritability. Of those who attempt to quit without formal treatment, only 3%-5% remain abstinent after a year.Research suggests that mindfulness meditation-based programs can be an effective strategy to quit smoking. Mindfulness is an aspect of meditation that involves cultivating a nonjudgmental awareness of the thoughts, emotions, and sensations arising in the present moment.For one study, researchers randomly assigned 88 smokers to either Mindfulness Training (MT) or the Freedom From Smoking (FFS) intervention developed by the American Lung Association. Both groups participated in 90-minute group training sessions twice a week for four weeks. The FFS intervention educated participants on the negative health consequences of smoking, coping strategies for cravings, and the development of healthy lifestyle habits. The MT intervention taught mindfulness meditation techniques as a way of gaining awareness and acceptance of the cognitive, emotional, and physical components of cravings. The number of cigarettes smoked per day and self-reported abstinence, as verified by exhaled carbon monoxide, were measured at the end of treatment and at a 17-week follow-up for participants in each group (Figure 1) .

Figure 1 Percentage of participants in each group abstinent at the end of treatment and at 17-week follow-up (* indicates p < 0.05)
-Smoking behavior is:

Quizplus · Accepted Answer

11ecba2d_0c50_f6a8_a3bf_df79c345a821_MD0008_00 In operant conditioning, reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. When a desirable stimulus or outcome is added following a behavior, this is known as positive reinforcement. For example, if a child earns good grades and receives praise or candy, that behavior is positively reinforced, making the behavior likely to continue. Similarly, mild feelings of euphoria after inhaling cigarette smoke positively reinforce smoking behavior. When an undesirable stimulus or outcome is removed following a behavior, this is known as negative reinforcement. For example, if a rat receives a constant electric shock until it presses a lever that turns off the stimulus, that behavior is negatively reinforced. Smoking to avoid unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (eg, cravings, irritability) is also an example of negative reinforcement. Punishment decreases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again. When an undesirable stimulus or outcome is added following a behavior, this is known as positive punishment (eg, spanking a child after misbehavior). The onset of withdrawal symptoms would be a positive punishment, decreasing the likelihood of quitting (Choices C and D). When a desirable stimulus or outcome is removed following a behavior, this is known as negative punishment (eg, no dessert because of misbehavior). The removal of euphoria would be negative punishment, decreasing the likelihood of quitting (Choice A). Educational objective: Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior such as smoking. Positive reinforcement (eg, feelings of euphoria) occurs when a desirable stimulus increases the likelihood of a behavior, and negative reinforcement (eg, removal of withdrawal symptoms) occurs when the avoidance of a negative stimulus increases the likelihood of a behavior. Punishment decreases the likelihood that a behavior (eg, quitting) will occur again.

Passage The Highly Addictive Nature of Cigarettes Can Be Partly Explained