Question 1

When scientists consider whether causal statements are true or false, they are concerned with the validity of causal inference.

Accepted Answer

This is because causal inference involves determining whether there is a causal relationship between two variables or events, which requires considering the evidence and methods used to make the causal claim. The validity of the causal inference is therefore the key concern in determining the truth or falsity of a causal statement.

Question 2

Ecological fallacy refers to the dangers of making assertions about large groups as the units of analysis based upon examination of individuals.

Accepted Answer

Ecological fallacy refers to the error of making inferences about individuals based on aggregate data for a group.

Question 3

The scientific criteria for causality include ____.

Accepted Answer

The scientific criteria for causality include a correlation between the cause and the effect. Correlation implies a relationship between two variables, where a change in one variable is associated with a change in the other variable. However, correlation alone does not imply causation - there must be evidence for a causal mechanism.

Question 4

Cross-sectional studies are those based on observations made at one time.

Accepted Answer

Cross-sectional studies are conducted at a single point in time, making observations on a sample of the population at that particular time. Therefore, the statement "Cross-sectional studies are those based on observations made at one time" is true.

Question 5

Suppose a researcher describes the age, race, and gender distributions for people who are charged with shoplifting. The unit of analysis is ____.

Accepted Answer

The unit of analysis refers to the entity or level of observation that the researcher is studying. In this case, the researcher is describing the age, race, and gender distributions of people who are charged with shoplifting, which indicates that the unit of analysis is individuals.

Question 6

The pillars of science are logic and rationality.

Accepted Answer

The pillars of science are observation, experimentation, and evidence-based reasoning, not just logic and rationality.

Question 7

Explanatory scientific research centers on the notion of cause and effect.

Accepted Answer

Explanatory scientific research is based on identifying the cause and effect relationship between variables.

Question 8

When we say something is valid, we make a judgment about the extent to which relevant evidence supports that inference as being ____.

Accepted Answer

When we say something is valid, we are making a judgment about the extent to which relevant evidence supports that inference as being true or correct. Reliability and probability are related to validity, but they don't capture the essence of what it means for something to be valid. Interestingness is not necessarily related to validity.

Question 9

Scientific realism bridges idiographic and nomothetic approaches to explanation by seeking to understand how causal mechanisms operate in specific contexts..

Accepted Answer

Scientific realism is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes the existence of a mind-independent reality that can be studied through scientific methods. It bridges idiographic (focusing on specific, individual cases) and nomothetic (focusing on general laws and principles) approaches by seeking to understand how causal mechanisms operate in specific contexts. This means that scientific realism acknowledges the importance of both the uniqueness of particular events and the general patterns and trends that emerge from them.

Question 10

Longitudinal studies are designed to permit intensive observations over a short period of time.

Accepted Answer

Longitudinal studies are designed to permit intensive observations over a long period of time, usually several years or even decades.

Question 11

Suppose a researcher wants to understand why some stores have higher rates of shoplifting than do others and looks at the relationship between rates of shoplifting for particular stores and the characteristics of the stores

Accepted Answer

The unit of analysis is the stores at which shoplifting occurs. The researcher is looking at the characteristics of the stores that have higher rates of shoplifting compared to others.

Question 12

Most explanatory social research uses a probabilistic model of causation.

Accepted Answer

Most explanatory social research uses a probabilistic model of causation, which assumes that an independent variable increases the likelihood or probability of a dependent variable, but does not guarantee that the dependent variable will occur. Therefore, it is based on the concept of probability rather than certainty.

Question 13

When saying validity is "the approximate truth of an inference," the emphasis is on ____.

Accepted Answer

The emphasis is on "approximate" because it highlights that validity in this context refers to the degree to which an inference closely approximates the truth, rather than being an absolute measure.

Question 14

A researcher is interested in how criminality is related to age and a large number of individuals of different ages at one point in time. This is a ____ study.

Accepted Answer

A cross-sectional study compares data for individuals of different ages at one point in time. In this case, the researcher is interested in the relationship between criminality and age in a large group of individuals at one point in time, making it a cross-sectional study.

Question 15

Traditional approaches to finding cause and effect usually try to isolate causal mechanisms from other possible influences while the scientific realist approach views these other possible influences as ____.

Accepted Answer

The scientific realist approach views other possible influences as contexts that are interconnected with the causal mechanisms rather than isolating them. This view acknowledges the complexity of causality in real-world situations.

Question 16

Individuals may be units of analysis in criminal justice research.

Accepted Answer

This statement is true. Individuals can be studied as units of analysis in criminal justice research, along with other levels of analysis such as groups, organizations, communities, and society as a whole.

Question 17

The two essentials of science are ____.

Accepted Answer

Logic and observation are fundamental to the scientific method, as they involve reasoning and empirical evidence gathering.

Question 18

A scientific realist approach to examining mechanisms in context bridges ____.

Accepted Answer

A scientific realist approach to examining mechanisms in context aims to identify general causal laws that explain how mechanisms work in specific contexts (nomothetic approach), while also taking into account the idiosyncratic features of the particular case being studied (idiographic approach). This approach bridges the idiographic and nomothetic approaches to causation.

Question 19

A researcher using social artifacts as the unit of analysis might be studying ____.

Accepted Answer

Social artifacts are products of human behavior such as books, newspapers, films, art, architecture. Among the given options, newspaper editorials are social artifacts that can be studied as a unit of analysis.

Question 20

In grounded theory, observations rarely contribute to theory development.

Accepted Answer

In grounded theory, observations are a crucial part of theory development. The goal of grounded theory is to develop theories based on observations and data, rather than starting with pre-existing theories or hypotheses. Observations are used to generate concepts and categories that are then developed into a theory.

Quiz 3: Section 1: General Issues in Research Design