Question 1

Most government organizations routinely collect and publish compilations of data, which are generally referred to as unpublished statistics. Examples are the Census Bureau, the FBI, the Administrative Office of U.S. Courts, the Federal Bureau of Prisons routinely collect data and these are called published statistics.

Accepted Answer

The statement is incorrect as it states that the data collected by government organizations is generally referred to as unpublished statistics, whereas in reality, such data is referred to as published statistics, as it is made available to the public.

Question 2

A great deal of criminal justice research uses data collected by state and local agencies such as police, criminal courts, probation offices, juvenile authorities, and corrections departments. Government agencies gather a vast amount of crime and criminal justice data, probably rivaled only by efforts to produce economic and public health indicators. Such information as "data from agency records."

Accepted Answer

This is true because data collected by various state and local agencies such as police, criminal courts, probation offices, juvenile authorities, and corrections departments is called "data from agency records."

Question 3

The reliability and validity of agency records, as well as the general suitability of those data for a research project, is primarily dependent upon understanding _____. Understanding how the data were originally collected helps researchers identify potential new uses of data and be better able to detect potential problems with reliability and validity.

Accepted Answer

A. This is an incorrect answer because the reliability and validity problems of agency records, as well as the general suitability of any data for a research project, is primarily dependent upon understanding the methods used to collect data. If the researcher does not know or does not understand how the data were originally collected, it can create a great deal of reliability and validity issues.
B. This is an incorrect answer because the reliability and validity problems of agency records, as well as the general suitability of any data for a research project, is primarily dependent upon understanding the methods used to collect data. If the researcher does not know or does not understand how the data were originally collected, it can create a great deal of reliability and validity issues.
C. The correct answer is "C" because the reliability and validity problems of agency records, as well as the general suitability of any data for a research project, is primarily dependent upon understanding the methods used to collect data. If the researcher does not know or does not understand how the data were originally collected, it can create a great deal of reliability and validity issues.
D. This is an incorrect answer because the reliability and validity problems of agency records, as well as the general suitability of any data for a research project, is primarily dependent upon understanding the methods used to collect data. If the researcher does not know or does not understand how the data were originally collected, it can create a great deal of reliability and validity issues.

Question 4

Agency records are seldom used in applied studies. Evaluations of new policies that seek to reduce recidivism might not draw on arrest or conviction data for measures of recidivism.

Accepted Answer

Agency records, including arrest and conviction data, are commonly used in applied studies for measures of recidivism when evaluating new policies to reduce recidivism.

Question 5

Record keeping in criminal justice is a _____. Indicators of all variables such as arrests, juvenile probation violations, court convictions, or rule infractions by prison inmates reflect decisions made by criminal justice officials in addition to the actual
Behavior of juvenile or adult offenders.

Accepted Answer

A. The correct answer is "A" because record keeping in criminal justice is a social process. Most of the variables studied in criminal justice are infractions by offenders and the decisions made by criminal justice officials in addition to the actual behavior of juvenile or adult offenders. Researchers must realize that performance measures are composites of offenders' behavior, organizational capacity to detect behavior, and decisions about how to respond to offenders' misbehavior.
B. This is an incorrect answer because record keeping in criminal justice is a social process. Most of the variables studied in criminal justice are infractions by offenders and the decisions made by criminal justice officials in addition to the actual behavior of juvenile or adult offenders. Researchers must realize that performance measures are composites of offenders' behavior, organizational capacity to detect behavior, and decisions about how to respond to offenders' misbehavior.
C. This is an incorrect answer because record keeping in criminal justice is a social process. Most of the variables studied in criminal justice are infractions by offenders and the decisions made by criminal justice officials in addition to the actual behavior of juvenile or adult offenders. Researchers must realize that performance measures are composites of offenders' behavior, organizational capacity to detect behavior, and decisions about how to respond to offenders' misbehavior.
D. This is an incorrect answer because record keeping in criminal justice is a social process. Most of the variables studied in criminal justice are infractions by offenders and the decisions made by criminal justice officials in addition to the actual behavior of juvenile or adult offenders. Researchers must realize that performance measures are composites of offenders' behavior, organizational capacity to detect behavior, and decisions about how to respond to offenders' misbehavior.

Question 6

Before beginning to code newspapers, crime dramas on television, or detective fiction, the researcher needs to make plans to assess the reliability of coding. Inter-rater reliability can be determined by having _____ code the same message and then computing the proportion of items coded the same.

Accepted Answer

A. This is an incorrect answer because inter-rater reliability can be determined by having two different people code the same message and then computing the proportion of items coded the same. For example, if 20 attributes of newspaper stories about crime are being coded and two coders score 18 attributes identically, their reliability is 90 percent.
B. The correct answer is "B" because inter-rater reliability can be determined by having two different people code the same message and then computing the proportion of items coded the same. For example, if 20 attributes of newspaper stories about crime are being coded and two coders score 18 attributes identically, their reliability is 90 percent.
C. This is an incorrect answer because inter-rater reliability can be determined by having two different people code the same message and then computing the proportion of items coded the same. For example, if 20 attributes of newspaper stories about crime are being coded and two coders score 18 attributes identically, their reliability is 90 percent.
D. This is an incorrect answer because inter-rater reliability can be determined by having two different people code the same message and then computing the proportion of items coded the same. For example, if 20 attributes of newspaper stories about crime are being coded and two coders score 18 attributes identically, their reliability is 90 percent.

Question 7

Data from agency records or archives may have originally been gathered in any number of ways, from sample surveys to direct observation. Because of this, such data may, in principle, be appropriate for just about _____ research.

Accepted Answer

A. The correct answer is "A" because data from agency records or archives may have originally been gathered in any number of ways, from sample surveys to direct observation. Such data may, in principle, be appropriate for just about any type of criminal justice.
B. This is an incorrect answer because data from agency records or archives may have originally been gathered in any number of ways, from sample surveys to direct observation. Such data may, in principle, be appropriate for just about any type of criminal justice not just for qualitative criminal justice research design only.
C. This is an incorrect answer because data from agency records or archives may have originally been gathered in any number of ways, from sample surveys to direct observation. Such data may, in principle, be appropriate for just about any type of criminal justice not just for quantitative criminal justice research design only.
D. This is an incorrect answer because data from agency records or archives may have originally been gathered in any number of ways, from sample surveys to direct observation. Such data may, in principle, be appropriate for just about any type of criminal justice not just for criminal justice research survey design only.

Question 8

Data from agency records or archives may have originally been gathered in any number of ways, from sample surveys to direct observation. Because of this, such data may, in principle, be inappropriate for just about any criminal justice research topic.

Accepted Answer

This is false because data from agency records or archives is generally gathered in a number of different ways, from sample surveys to direct observation. So such data may, in principle, is appropriate for just about any criminal justice research topic.

Question 9

Agency records are commonly used in descriptive or exploratory studies. This is consistent with the fact that many of the criminal justice data published by government agencies are intended to describe something.

Accepted Answer

Government agency records are often created to collect and report data on a particular topic, which makes them useful for descriptive and exploratory studies. This is especially true in criminal justice, where agencies collect data on crime rates, arrests, and other aspects of the justice system to inform policy and public safety efforts.

Question 10

Coding the manifest content-the visible, surface content-of a communication more closely approximates the _____ in a survey questionnaire. Alternatively, coding the latent content of the communication-its underlying meaning-is an option. In the most general sense, manifest and latent content can be distinguished by the degree of interpretation required in measurement.

Accepted Answer

A. The correct answer is "A" because coding the manifest content-the visible, surface content-of a communication more closely approximates the use of closed-ended items not the use of both close ended and open-ended items in a survey questionnaire. Coding the latent content of the communication-its underlying meaning-is an option. In the most general sense, manifest and latent content can be distinguished by the degree of interpretation required in measurement.
B. This is an incorrect answer because coding the manifest content-the visible, surface content-of a communication more closely approximates the use of closed-ended items not the use of open-ended items in a survey questionnaire. Coding the latent content of the communication-its underlying meaning-is an option. In the most general sense, manifest and latent content can be distinguished by the degree of interpretation required in measurement.
C. This is an incorrect answer because coding the manifest content-the visible, surface content-of a communication more closely approximates the use of closed-ended items not the use of both close ended and open-ended items in a survey questionnaire. Coding the latent content of the communication-its underlying meaning-is an option. In the most general sense, manifest and latent content can be distinguished by the degree of interpretation required in measurement.
D. This is an incorrect answer because coding the manifest content-the visible, surface content-of a communication more closely approximates the use of closed-ended items not the use of both close ended and open-ended items in a survey questionnaire. Coding the latent content of the communication-its underlying meaning-is an option. In the most general sense, manifest and latent content can be distinguished by the degree of interpretation required in measurement.

Question 11

Investigators who conduct research funded by federal agencies such as the National Institute of Justice are usually obliged to release their data for public use. Thus, if a researcher uses and analyzes data previously collected by others or government agencies usually for purposes that differ from the current researcher's, then that is called _____.

Accepted Answer

A. This is an incorrect answer because primary data analysis means - data is collected by the researchers themselves originally to address their questions. In contrast if a researcher uses and analyzes data previously collected by others or government agencies usually for purposes that differ from the current researcher's, then that is called secondary data analysis.
B. The correct answer is "B" because primary data analysis means - data is collected by the researchers themselves originally to address their questions. In contrast if a researcher uses and analyzes data previously collected by others or government agencies usually for purposes that differ from the current researcher's, then that is called secondary data analysis.
C. This is an incorrect answer because primary data analysis means - data is collected by the researchers themselves originally to address their questions. In contrast if a researcher uses and analyzes data previously collected by others or government agencies usually for purposes that differ from the current researcher's, then that is called secondary data analysis.
D. This is an incorrect answer because primary data analysis means - data is collected by the researchers themselves originally to address their questions. In contrast if a researcher uses and analyzes data previously collected by others or government agencies usually for purposes that differ from the current researcher's, then that is called secondary data analysis.

Question 12

In content analysis, researchers examine a class of social artifacts-written documents or other types of messages. Suppose you want to contrast the importance of criminal justice policy and health care policy for Americans in 2004 and 2014. One option is to examine public-opinion polls from these years. Another method is to analyze articles from newspapers published in each year. The latter is an example of content analysis: the _____.

Accepted Answer

A. This is an incorrect answer because in the example given, even though published documents in each year are analyzed, the purpose of this analysis is to analyze the communications to contrast the importance of criminal justice policy and health care policy for Americans in 2004 and 2014. Thus, it is an example of content analysis: then analysis of communications.
B. This is an incorrect answer because in the example given, even though published newspapers in each year are analyzed, the purpose of this analysis is to analyze the communications to contrast the importance of criminal justice policy and health care policy for Americans in 2004 and 2014. Thus, it is an example of content analysis: then analysis of communications.
C. This is an incorrect answer because in the example given, even though published articles in each year are analyzed, the purpose of this analysis is to analyze the communications to contrast the importance of criminal justice policy and health care policy for Americans in 2004 and 2014. Thus, it is an example of content analysis: then analysis of communications.
D. The correct answer is "D" because in the example given, even though published documents, articles and newspapers in each year are analyzed, the purpose of this analysis is to analyze the communications to contrast the importance of criminal justice policy and health care policy for Americans in 2004 and 2014. Thus, it is an example of content analysis: then analysis of communications.

Question 13

No coding scheme should be used in content analysis unless it has been carefully pretested. The researcher must decide what manifest or latent contents of communications will be regarded as indicators of the different attributes that make up research variables, develop and define these _____, and use them in the actual coding of several units of observation.

Accepted Answer

A. The correct answer is "A" because for coding scheme to be accurately describe the attributes, it should be carefully pretested. The researcher must decide what manifest or latent contents of communications will be regarded as indicators of the different attributes that make up research variables, and develop and define these operational definitions, to be used in the actual coding of several units of observation. Operationalizing the measures is an important process.
B. This is an incorrect answer because for coding scheme to be accurately describe the attributes, it should be carefully pretested. The researcher must decide what manifest or latent contents of communications will be regarded as indicators of the different attributes that make up research variables, and develop and define these operational definitions, to be used in the actual coding of several units of observation. Operationalizing the measures is an important process.
C. This is an incorrect answer because for coding scheme to be accurately describe the attributes, it should be carefully pretested. The researcher must decide what manifest or latent contents of communications will be regarded as indicators of the different attributes that make up research variables, and develop and define these operational definitions, to be used in the actual coding of several units of observation. Operationalizing the measures is an important process.
D. This is an incorrect answer because for coding scheme to be accurately describe the attributes, it should be carefully pretested. The researcher must decide what manifest or latent contents of communications will be regarded as indicators of the different attributes that make up research variables, and develop and define these operational definitions, to be used in the actual coding of several units of observation. Operationalizing the measures is an important process.

Question 14

Content analysis is essentially a coding operation. Coding represents the _____ in content analysis. Communications-oral, written, or other-are coded or classified according to some conceptual framework.

Accepted Answer

A. This is an incorrect answer because coding represents the measurement process in content analysis. Communications-oral, written, or other-are coded or classified according to some conceptual framework. For example, newspaper editorials might be coded as liberal or conservative. Political speeches might be coded as containing unsupported rhetoric about crime or not. Terms such as these are subject to many interpretations, and the researcher must specify definitions clearly.
B. The correct answer is "B" because coding represents the measurement process in content analysis. Communications-oral, written, or other-are coded or classified according to some conceptual framework. For example, newspaper editorials might be coded as liberal or conservative. Political speeches might be coded as containing unsupported rhetoric about crime or not. Terms such as these are subject to many interpretations, and the researcher must specify definitions clearly.
C. This is an incorrect answer because coding represents the measurement process in content analysis. Communications-oral, written, or other-are coded or classified according to some conceptual framework. For example, newspaper editorials might be coded as liberal or conservative. Political speeches might be coded as containing unsupported rhetoric about crime or not. Terms such as these are subject to many interpretations, and the researcher must specify definitions clearly.
D. This is an incorrect answer because coding represents the measurement process in content analysis. Communications-oral, written, or other-are coded or classified according to some conceptual framework. For example, newspaper editorials might be coded as liberal or conservative. Political speeches might be coded as containing unsupported rhetoric about crime or not. Terms such as these are subject to many interpretations, and the researcher must specify definitions clearly.

Question 15

Throughout the process of conceptualizing manifest- and latent-content coding procedures, the operational definition of any variable is composed of the attributes included in it. Such attributes, moreover, should be _____.

Accepted Answer

A. This is an incorrect answer because the operational definition of any variable is composed of the attributes included in it. Such attributes, moreover, should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. For example, a newspaper editorial should not be described as both liberal and conservative, although we should probably allow for some to be middle-of-the-road. It may be sufficient to code TV programs as being violent or not violent, but it is also possible that some programs could be antiviolence.
B. This is an incorrect answer because the operational definition of any variable is composed of the attributes included in it. Such attributes, moreover, should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. For example, a newspaper editorial should not be described as both liberal and conservative, although we should probably allow for some to be middle-of-the-road. It may be sufficient to code TV programs as being violent or not violent, but it is also possible that some programs could be antiviolence.
C. This is an incorrect answer because the operational definition of any variable is composed of the attributes included in it. Such attributes, moreover, should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. For example, a newspaper editorial should not be described as both liberal and conservative, although we should probably allow for some to be middle-of-the-road. It may be sufficient to code TV programs as being violent or not violent, but it is also possible that some programs could be antiviolence.
D. The correct answer is "D" because the operational definition of any variable is composed of the attributes included in it. Such attributes, moreover, should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. For example, a newspaper editorial should not be described as both liberal and conservative, although we should probably allow for some to be middle-of-the-road. It may be sufficient to code TV programs as being violent or not violent, but it is also possible that some programs could be antiviolence.

Question 16

Research data collected by other investigators, through surveys or field observation, may be used for a broad variety of later studies and may also be considered as a _____ of data.

Accepted Answer

A. The correct answer is "A" because if a researcher wants to know about individual correctional facilities or facility inmates, summary data cannot be of much help. For that a researcher will have to seek alternate sources of data. For example, a researcher could obtain individual-level data about inmates and institutions from the Census Bureau in electronic form, but published tabulations will not be helpful as they present only summaries.
B. This is an incorrect answer because if a researcher wants to know about individual correctional facilities or facility inmates, summary data cannot be of much help. For that a researcher will have to seek alternate sources of data. For example, a researcher could obtain individual-level data about inmates and institutions from the Census Bureau in electronic form, but published tabulations will not be helpful as they present only summaries.
C. This is an incorrect answer because if a researcher wants to know about individual correctional facilities or facility inmates, summary data cannot be of much help. For that a researcher will have to seek alternate sources of data. For example, a researcher could obtain individual-level data about inmates and institutions from the Census Bureau in electronic form, but published tabulations will not be helpful as they present only summaries.
D. This is an incorrect answer because if a researcher wants to know about individual correctional facilities or facility inmates, summary data cannot be of much help. For that a researcher will have to seek alternate sources of data. For example, a researcher could obtain individual-level data about inmates and institutions from the Census Bureau in electronic form, but published tabulations will not be helpful as they present only summaries.

Question 17

Coding in content analysis involves the logic of _____. In content analysis, as in other research methods, researchers must refine their conceptual framework and develop specific methods for observing in relation to that framework.

Accepted Answer

A. This is an incorrect answer because for all research methods, conceptualization and operationalization typically involve the interaction of theoretical concerns and empirical observations. If, for example, you believe some newspaper editorials support liberal crime policies and others support conservative ones, ask yourself why you think so. Read some editorials, asking which ones are liberal and which ones are conservative. As in other decisions relating to measurement, the researcher faces a fundamental choice between depth and specificity of understanding.
B. This is an incorrect answer because for all research methods, conceptualization and operationalization typically involve the interaction of theoretical concerns and empirical observations. If, for example, you believe some newspaper editorials support liberal crime policies and others support conservative ones, ask yourself why you think so. Read some editorials, asking which ones are liberal and which ones are conservative. As in other decisions relating to measurement, the researcher faces a fundamental choice between depth and specificity of understanding.
C. The correct answer is "C" because for all research methods, conceptualization and operationalization typically involve the interaction of theoretical concerns and empirical observations. If, for example, you believe some newspaper editorials support liberal crime policies and others support conservative ones, ask yourself why you think so. Read some editorials, asking which ones are liberal and which ones are conservative. As in other decisions relating to measurement, the researcher faces a fundamental choice between depth and specificity of understanding.
D. This is an incorrect answer because for all research methods, conceptualization and operationalization typically involve the interaction of theoretical concerns and empirical observations. If, for example, you believe some newspaper editorials support liberal crime policies and others support conservative ones, ask yourself why you think so. Read some editorials, asking which ones are liberal and which ones are conservative. As in other decisions relating to measurement, the researcher faces a fundamental choice between depth and specificity of understanding.

Question 18

Agency data are not collected with the research process, research questions, or the researcher in mind. In many cases, criminal justice officials collect data because the law requires them to do so. Recordkeeping procedures reflect _____. As a consequence, researchers sometimes find it difficult to adapt agency records for a specific research purpose.

Accepted Answer

A. This is an incorrect answer because agency data are not collected with the research process, research questions, or the researcher in mind. Recordkeeping procedures reflect internal needs and directives from higher authorities. More generally, agencies tend to collect data for their own use, not for the use of researchers. As a consequence, researchers sometimes find it difficult to adapt agency records for a specific research purpose. For example, court disposition records are maintained in part because of legal mandates, and such records are designed for the use of judges, prosecutors, and other officials, not for researchers.
B. This is an incorrect answer because agency data are not collected with the research process, research questions, or the researcher in mind. Recordkeeping procedures reflect internal needs and directives from higher authorities. More generally, agencies tend to collect data for their own use, not for the use of researchers. As a consequence, researchers sometimes find it difficult to adapt agency records for a specific research purpose. For example, court disposition records are maintained in part because of legal mandates, and such records are designed for the use of judges, prosecutors, and other officials, not for researchers.
C. This is an incorrect answer because agency data are not collected with the research process, research questions, or the researcher in mind. Recordkeeping procedures reflect internal needs and directives from higher authorities. More generally, agencies tend to collect data for their own use, not for the use of researchers. As a consequence, researchers sometimes find it difficult to adapt agency records for a specific research purpose. For example, court disposition records are maintained in part because of legal mandates, and such records are designed for the use of judges, prosecutors, and other officials, not for researchers.
D. The correct answer is "D" because agency data are not collected with the research process, research questions, or the researcher in mind. Recordkeeping procedures reflect internal needs and directives from higher authorities. More generally, agencies tend to collect data for their own use, not for the use of researchers. As a consequence, researchers sometimes find it difficult to adapt agency records for a specific research purpose. For example, court disposition records are maintained in part because of legal mandates, and such records are designed for the use of judges, prosecutors, and other officials, not for researchers.

Question 19

In addition to be used for exploratory and explanatory studies, agency records are frequently used in _____ as well. Evaluations of new policies that seek to reduce recidivism might draw on arrest or conviction data for measures of recidivism.

Accepted Answer

A. This is an incorrect answer because in addition to be used for exploratory and explanatory studies, agency records are frequently used in applied studies as well. Evaluations of new policies that seek to reduce recidivism might draw on arrest or conviction data for measures of recidivism. For example, a study of drug courts as an alternative way to process defendants with substance abuse problems traced arrest records for experimental and control subjects.
B. This is an incorrect answer because in addition to be used for exploratory and explanatory studies, agency records are frequently used in applied studies as well. Evaluations of new policies that seek to reduce recidivism might draw on arrest or conviction data for measures of recidivism. For example, a study of drug courts as an alternative way to process defendants with substance abuse problems traced arrest records for experimental and control subjects.
C. The correct answer is "C" because in addition to be used for exploratory and explanatory studies, agency records are frequently used in applied studies as well. Evaluations of new policies that seek to reduce recidivism might draw on arrest or conviction data for measures of recidivism. For example, a study of drug courts as an alternative way to process defendants with substance abuse problems traced arrest records for experimental and control subjects.
D. This is an incorrect answer because in addition to be used for exploratory and explanatory studies, agency records are frequently used in applied studies as well. Evaluations of new policies that seek to reduce recidivism might draw on arrest or conviction data for measures of recidivism. For example, a study of drug courts as an alternative way to process defendants with substance abuse problems traced arrest records for experimental and control subjects.

Quiz 10: Section 2: Agency Records, Content Analysis, and Secondary Data